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In the 21st century, coats of arms are still in use by a variety of institutions and individuals; for example, many European cities and universities have guidelines on how their coats of arms may be used, and protect their use as trademarks.[3][4][5] Many societies exist that also aid in the design and registration of personal arms. Some nations, like England and Scotland, still maintain the same heraldic authorities which have traditionally granted and regulated arms for centuries and continue to do so in the present day. | In the 21st century, coats of arms are still in use by a variety of institutions and individuals; for example, many European cities and universities have guidelines on how their coats of arms may be used, and protect their use as trademarks.[3][4][5] Many societies exist that also aid in the design and registration of personal arms. Some nations, like England and Scotland, still maintain the same heraldic authorities which have traditionally granted and regulated arms for centuries and continue to do so in the present day. | ||
==The Guianas== | |||
TThe Guianas, region of South America, located on the continent’s north-central coast and covering an area of about 181,000 square miles (468,800 square km). It includes the independent nations of Guyana and Suriname and French Guiana, an overseas département of France. The region is bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea, on the east and south by Brazil, and on the west by Venezuela. In the late 20th century, boundary disputes remained unsettled between Venezuela and Guyana, Guyana and Suriname, and Suriname and French Guiana. | |||
The Guianas are subdivided into three principal zones from south to north: the Precambrian Guiana Shield, a region of low mountains that lies along the southern borders of the three states and rises to the region’s highest point, Mount Roraima, 9,094 feet (2,772 metres); a lower region of hilly country covered by a tropical hardwood forest and occasional savanna grasslands; and the low-lying, narrow alluvial plain along the Atlantic coast. The region’s name derives from an Indian word for such lowlands: guiana (“land of water”). Major rivers drain the highlands north-northeastward toward the sea. The region has a year-round humid tropical climate that is tempered along the coast by offshore sea breezes. About 80–90 percent of the region is covered by dense tropical forests containing many valuable species of wood. Settlement and commercial agriculture are largely confined to the coastal areas and the lower, navigable river valleys. The region’s rich and diverse wildlife includes jaguars, pumas, ocelots, tapirs, deer, sloths, great anteaters, armadillos, caimans, and iguanas. The Guiana Shield is rich in minerals, but only bauxite is exploited on a large scale by Guyana and Suriname. The rivers have rich and partly developed potential for hydroelectric power. | |||
The Guianas’ population ranges from indigenous American Indians to descendants of European colonizers, African slaves, East Indian, Chinese, and Indonesian indentured servants, Southeast Asian refugees, and Haitians. The languages of The Guianas are also varied and set the region apart from the rest of Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking South America. French, Dutch, and English are the official languages, respectively, of French Guiana, Suriname, and Guyana, but there are also many speakers of a creole language combining the three with African and Asian dialects. | |||
Mining, agriculture, forestry, and fishing are major components of the region’s economy. Agriculture is divided between commercial plantation crops, which are important regional exports, and domestic crops, largely grown on small individual farms in the interior. Cattle, pigs, and chickens are raised on small farms, and fishing is a growing industry in the region. Forestry likewise is a growing industry, and the region’s timber resources are plentiful. Guyana and Suriname rank among the world’s largest bauxite and alumina producers. Manufacturing is only partly developed in the region, concentrated largely on processing domestic raw materials for export. The region’s principal exports include bauxite, aluminum, alumina, shrimp and fish, rice, and lumber. | |||
The earliest-known American Indians of the Guianas called the land Surinen, whence the name Suriname originated. The earliest European explorers were Spaniards under Amerigo Vespucci in the early 1500s. Despite Spain’s claim to the area in 1593, the Dutch began in 1602 to settle along the Essequibo, Courantyne, and Cayenne rivers and were followed by the Dutch West India Company (1621), which received what is now Guyana, and later Suriname. The company introduced African slaves to work its tobacco, cotton, and coffee plantations. Part of Suriname in the meantime was colonized by the English sent from Barbados in 1651. The French settled first in a trading post at Sinnamary in 1624 and later established Cayenne (1643). | |||
Under the Treaty of Breda (1667), the Dutch received Suriname from England in exchange for Nieuw Amsterdam (New York), and the French were awarded French Guiana, setting the stage for the expulsion of Dutch settlers from Cayenne. Following these political settlements, sugar became the major plantation crop, and between 1742 and 1786 numerous British planters from the West Indies transferred to the Dutch-ruled Guianas, particularly the western one, and the use of slaves rose sharply. | |||
With the outbreak of the French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic conquest of Europe, the British temporarily occupied the Dutch Guianas. Following Napoleon’s final defeat (1815), the British purchased the Demerara, Berbice, and Essequibo colonies and consolidated their colonies into British Guiana (1831). The abolition movement that had developed in England resulted in a cessation of the slave trade in 1807, followed by emancipation in 1834–38. French Guiana abolished slavery in 1848, and Dutch-ruled Suriname did the same in 1863. The majority of the freed slaves refused to return to plantation labour, and the colonists therefore brought in indentured servants from India, China, and Southeast Asia. | |||
In British Guiana settlers discovered gold in 1879, thereby inaugurating the exploitation of mineral resources that have since become the dominant industries of Guyana and Suriname. Bauxite was first discovered (1915) in Suriname and subsequently in British Guiana. French Guiana in 1946 became a French overseas département, while Suriname underwent constitutional reform (1948–51) and was granted self-government by the Netherlands in 1954 and independence in 1975. British Guiana was granted its own constitution in 1953 and achieved independence as Guyana in 1966. | |||
==Geography of Guyana== | ==Geography of Guyana== | ||