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==History of Cyprus== | ==History of Cyprus== | ||
*Earliest periods | |||
Tools and other artifacts provide the earliest evidence of human activity on Cyprus; artifacts and burned animal bones found at Aetokremnos on the southern coast have been dated to about 12,000 years ago. Whether these finds indicate a permanent human occupation of the island or intermittent visits by seafaring hunter-gatherers remains a source of debate. The first known settlement, dated as early as 9,000 years ago, was at Khirokitia (near the southern coast), a town of about 2,000 inhabitants who lived in well-built two-story round stone houses. The presence of small quantities of obsidian, a type of volcanic rock not native to the island, is the only sign of the island’s contact with other cultures. Khirokitia and several smaller associated settlements disappeared after a few centuries, leaving the island uninhabited for nearly 2,000 years. The beginning of the next period of habitation dates to 4500–4000 bc; the sites of small villages from that time have been excavated north of Kourion at Sotira near the southern coast and also in the Kyrenia Mountains, and ornaments of picrolite (a variety of soapstone) and copper have also been found in those areas. | |||
*THE BRONZE AGE | |||
The Chalcolithic Period (Copper Age), which dates from 3000 to 2500 bc, was followed by the Bronze Age. Several styles of well-made decorative pottery from the Middle Bronze Age (1900–1600 bc) demonstrate advanced craftsmanship, and imports from Crete, Anatolia, Syria, and Egypt prove that external trade had begun by this time. It is possible that the name Alashiya or Alasia, both of which occur in Hittite and Egyptian records in connection with the supply of copper, refers to Cyprus. These trade links probably accounted for the foundation of new settlements in the eastern part of the island that became international trading centres. | |||
The Late Bronze Age (1600–1050 bc) was one of the most formative periods of the life of ancient Cyprus. The island’s international contacts extended from the Aegean Sea to the Levant and the Nile River delta. (Thutmose III of Egypt claimed Cyprus as one of his conquests about 1500 bc.) Writing, in the form of a linear script known as Cypro-Minoan, was borrowed from Crete. Cypriot craftsmen were distinguished for fine jewelry, ivory carving, and bronze figures. From about 1400 bc Mycenaean pottery was imported from mainland Greece, and it is possible that Mycenaean artists accompanied the merchants. There is evidence of Greek immigration from the Peloponnese after 1200 bc, with the collapse of Mycenaean civilization. West of Famagusta was Engomi, the principal city and port; its massive city walls and houses of hewn stone demonstrate a high level of prosperity. | |||
*GREEK IMMIGRATION | |||
The immigration of settlers from Greece, which had begun at least by 1200, led to the foundation of Greek kingdoms covering most of the island, and, since the start of the 1st millennium bc, the Greek language has been predominant in Cyprus; the fact that the dialectal form in which it first appears is known as Arcado-Cypriot confirms traditions of the Peloponnesian origin—and specifically of the Arcadian origin—of the immigrants. They founded new cities, which became the capitals of six ancient Greek kingdoms on Cyprus: Curium (Greek: Kourion), Paphos, Marion, Soli (Greek: Soloi), Lapithos, and Salamis. About 800 bc a Phoenician colony was founded at Citium (Greek: Kition), near modern Larnaca, as a dependency of the mother city, Tyre. A seventh kingdom, Amathus, remained for some time under the control of the earlier indigenous inhabitants; the language used there was called Eteo-Cypriot (“True Cypriot”) by the Greeks. Amathus became active politically, especially in external trade relations. Spectacular chariot burials of the royal family of Salamis—which closely match descriptions found in the Homeric poems, suggesting inspiration by them—are evidence of an advancing civilization in the late Iron Age. | |||
*External political influences | |||
'''ASSYRIAN AND EGYPTIAN DOMINATION''' | |||
In 709 bc Sargon II of Assyria erected a stela at Citium recording the fact that seven Cypriot kings had paid him homage; subsequent Assyrian documents mention 11 tributary kingdoms: the seven already cited plus Citium, Kyrenia, Tamassos, and Idalium. This subordination to Assyria, probably rather nominal, lasted until about 663. For the next hundred years, Cyprus enjoyed a period of complete independence and massive development. Epic poetry grew increasingly popular, and much was written on the island; Stasinus of Cyprus, credited with the authorship of the lost epic poem Cypria, was highly regarded among the poets of this literary style in the 7th century. Bronze, iron, delicate jewelry, and ivory work are characteristic of this period; notable examples are the ivory throne and bedstead excavated from a royal tomb at Salamis dating from about 700 bc. | |||
When the Assyrian empire finally broke up at the end of the 7th century bc, Egypt, under the Saite dynasty, became the predominant power in the eastern Mediterranean. About 569 the Cypriot kingdoms recognized the pharaoh Ahmose II as their overlord. Direct Egyptian influence was not always apparent, but many limestone sculptures reproduced Egyptian conventions in dress, and some statues were directly inspired by Egyptian models. A more important influence in the late Archaic period (750–475 bc) came from the artistic schools of Ionia, which was also probably the same source of the inspiration for issuing coinage; the first Cypriot coins were circulated for King Euelthon of Salamis in 560–525 bc. | |||
'''THE PERSIAN EMPIRE''' | |||
In 525 bc the Cypriot kings transferred their allegiance to the Achaemenid (Persian) conquerors of Egypt. The Cypriots retained their independence until the accession of Darius I in 522 but were then incorporated into the fifth satrapy of the Persian empire. When the Ionians revolted in 499, all the kingdoms of Cyprus except Amathus joined them; the revolt was subsequently suppressed, culminating in sieges of Paphos and Soli. During Xerxes I’s invasion of Greece in 480 bc, the Cypriot kings, like the Ionians, contributed naval contingents to his forces. Cyprus remained under Persian rule during the 5th century in spite of a major Athenian expedition there in about 450. Evagoras, who became king of Salamis in 411 bc, maintained a pro-Hellenic policy—with some help from Athens—and succeeded in extending his rule over a large portion of the island. He was defeated by the Persians in 381 and was assassinated three years later. After the victory of Alexander the Great over the last Achaemenid ruler, Darius III, at Issus in 333 bc, the Cypriot kings rallied to Alexander and assisted him at the siege of Tyre. During the Classical period (475–325 bc), Cypriot art came under strong Attic influence. | |||
'''HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN RULE''' | |||
Alexander allowed the Cypriot kingdoms to continue but took from them the right to issue coinage. After his death in 323, his successors fought for control of Cyprus. The eventual victor was Ptolemy I of Egypt, who suppressed the kingdoms and made the island a province of his Egyptian kingdom. He forced the last king of Salamis, Nicocreon, to commit suicide in 310 bc, together with all his family. For two and a half centuries, Cyprus remained a Ptolemaic possession, ruled by a strategus, or governor-general. | |||
'''CYPRUS AS A ROMAN PROVINCE''' | |||
Cyprus was annexed by the Roman Republic in 58 bc and, along with Cilicia on the coast of Anatolia, was made into a Roman province. One of its first proconsuls was the orator and writer Cicero. Cyprus was briefly ceded to Cleopatra VII of Egypt by Julius Caesar, and this status was confirmed by Mark Antony, but, after the victory of Caesar’s heir, Octavian (subsequently the emperor Augustus), over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at Actium in 31 bc, it became a Roman possession again. Cyprus was originally administered as part of the “imperial” province of Syria but became a separate “senatorial” province in 22 bc. Its governors resumed the old republican title of proconsul, although there is evidence that Augustus did influence the Senate’s choice. For the next 600 years, Cyprus enjoyed peace, disturbed only by occasional earthquakes and epidemics and by a Jewish uprising suppressed by a lieutenant of the future emperor Hadrian in ad 116. Many large public buildings were erected, among them a gymnasium and theatre at Salamis, a theatre at Kourion, and the governor’s palace at Paphos. | |||
'''EARLY CHRISTIANITY''' | |||
One of the most important events in the Roman period was the introduction of Christianity to Cyprus. The apostle Paul, accompanied by Barnabas (later St. Barnabas), a native of the Cypriot Jewish community, preached there about ad 45 and converted the proconsul, Sergius Paulus. By the time of Constantine I the Great, Christians were numerous on the island and may have constituted a majority of the population. | |||
'''BYZANTINE EMPIRE''' | |||
After the division of the Roman Empire in 395, Cyprus remained subject to the Eastern, or Byzantine, Empire at Constantinople, being part of the diocese of the Orient governed from Antioch. In ecclesiastical matters, however, the Church of Cyprus was autocephalous—i.e., independent of the Patriarchate of Antioch—having been given that privilege in 488 by the emperor Zeno. The archbishop received the rights, still valued and practiced today, to carry a sceptre instead of a crosier and to sign his name in purple ink, the imperial colour. | |||
There was a break in direct rule from Constantinople in 688 when Justinian II and the caliph ʿAbd al-Malik signed an unusual treaty neutralizing the island, which had been subject to Arab raids. For almost 300 years Cyprus was a kind of condominium (joint dominion) of the Byzantine Empire and the Caliphate, and, although the treaty was frequently violated by both sides, the arrangement lasted until 965, when the emperor Nicephorus II Phocas gained Cyprus completely for the Byzantines. The period that followed was one of modest prosperity. | |||
fresco painting: Byzantine frescoes in Asinou Church, Nikitari, Cyprus [Credit: unbekannter Maler A.D. 1106]A remarkable mosaic of the 6th century, at Kiti, is the best example of Eastern Roman art of that date, comparable to works at Ravenna, Italy. Another equally remarkable mosaic of roughly the same date, at Lythrangomi, was destroyed in 1974. Wall paintings demonstrate close contact with Constantinople; those at Asinou, in particular, are noteworthy as being the earliest of an unparalleled series of mural paintings showing successive developments of Byzantine art. | |||
About 1185 a Byzantine governor of Cyprus, Isaac Comnenus, rebelled and proclaimed himself emperor. Isaac resisted attacks from the Byzantine emperors Andronicus I Comnenus and Isaac II Angelus, but in 1191, on engaging in hostilities with an English Crusader fleet under King Richard I (the Lion-Heart), he was defeated and imprisoned. The island was seized by Richard, from whom it was acquired by the Crusading order of the Knights Templar; because they were unable to pay his price, he took it back and sold it to Guy of Lusignan, the dispossessed king of Jerusalem. | |||
THE LUSIGNAN KINGDOM AND GENOESE AND VENETIAN RULE | |||
Guy, a Frenchman who called himself lord of Cyprus, invited families that had lost their lands in Palestine after the fall of Jerusalem to the Muslims under Saladin to settle in Cyprus and thereby laid the basis for a feudal monarchy that survived to the end of the Middle Ages. His brother and successor, Amalric, obtained the title of king from the Holy Roman emperor Henry VI. The earliest kings of the Lusignan dynasty were involved in the affairs of the small territory still left to the kingdom of Jerusalem, and this commitment drained the resources of Cyprus until the kingdom collapsed in 1291 with the fall of Acre. Over the next hundred years, Cyprus gained a reputation in Europe for having immense riches, especially among its nobles and Famagustan merchants. Famagusta’s wealth derived from its position as the last entrepôt for European trade adjacent to the Levant. | |||
The kings of Cyprus had kept alive the Crusading idea, and the island remained a base for counterattacks against the Muslims. In 1361 the Cypriot king Peter I devoted himself to organizing a Crusade; he captured Adalia (Antalya) on the Cilician coast of Anatolia, and in 1365, after having collected money and mercenaries in western Europe, he seized and sacked Alexandria. He was not able to maintain the conquest, however, and was soon forced to abandon Alexandria. At his son’s accession the rivalry between Genoa and Venice over control of Cyprus’s valuable trade resulted in Genoa’s taking possession of Famagusta and holding on to it for nearly a century, which thus led to a rapid decline in the island’s prosperity. In 1426 an expedition from Egypt raided and overran the island, which from then on paid tribute to Cairo. The last Lusignan king, James II, seized the throne with the help of an Egyptian force and in 1464 expelled the Genoese from Famagusta. He married a Venetian noblewoman, Caterina Cornaro, and, on his death (which was followed by that of his posthumous son), she succeeded him as the last monarch of Cyprus. During her reign she was under strong Venetian pressure and was eventually persuaded to cede Cyprus to the Republic of Venice. It remained a Venetian possession for 82 years, until its capture by the Ottomans. | |||
'''OTTOMAN RULE''' | |||
A Turkish invading force landed in Cyprus in 1570 and seized Nicosia; the following year Famagusta fell after a long siege, which ushered in the beginning of more than three centuries of Ottoman rule. The Latin church was suppressed and the Orthodox hierarchy restored; after feudal tenure was abolished, the Greek peasantry acquired inalienable and hereditary rights to land. Taxes were at first reduced but later greatly increased and arbitrarily raised. In the 18th century the Orthodox archbishop was made responsible for tax collection. | |||
Thousands of Muslims were settled on the island immediately following the Ottoman conquest. To the sultans Cyprus was an unimportant province; its governors were indolent, inefficient, somewhat oppressive, and corrupt. There were Turkish uprisings in 1764 and 1833, and in 1821 the Orthodox archbishop was hanged on suspicion of sympathy with the rebels in mainland Greece. The sultanate’s various imperial proclamations in the 19th century promising reform had no effect in Cyprus, where local opposition blocked them. | |||
'''BRITISH RULE''' | |||
The Cyprus Convention of 1878 between Britain and Turkey provided that Cyprus, while remaining under Turkish sovereignty, should be administered by the British government. Britain’s aim in occupying Cyprus was to secure a base in the eastern Mediterranean for possible operations in the Caucasus or Mesopotamia as part of the British guarantee to secure the sultan’s Asian possessions from Russia. In 1914, when Britain and Turkey became adversaries during World War I, the former annexed the island; Turkey recognized this under the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923. Two years later Cyprus was officially declared a crown colony. | |||
British occupation was initially welcomed by the Greek population, which from the start expected the British to transfer Cyprus to Greece. The Greek Cypriots’ demand for enosis (union with Greece) was opposed by Turkish Cypriots, constituting a major division in the island’s politics; a string of almost annual petitions demanding enosis were matched by counterpetitions and demonstrations from the Turkish Cypriots. Britain had made an offer to transfer the island in 1915, on condition that Greece fulfill its treaty obligations toward Serbia when that country was attacked by Bulgaria; the Greek government refused it, and the offer was not renewed. In 1931 the demand for enosis led to riots in Nicosia. | |||
Cyprus was untouched by World War II, apart from a few air raids. In 1947 the governor, in accordance with the British Labour Party’s declaration on colonial policy, published proposals for greater self-government. They were rejected in favour of the slogan “enosis and only enosis.” In 1955 Lieutenant Colonel Georgios Grivas (known as Dighenis), a Cypriot who had served as an officer in the Greek army, began a concerted campaign for enosis. His National Organization of Cypriot Struggle (Ethnikí Orgánosis Kipriakoú Agónos; EOKA) bombed public buildings and attacked and killed both Greek Cypriot and British opponents of enosis. British jurist Lord Radcliffe, among others, suggested self-government in 1956, but all of the proposals were rejected, and the attacks continued. Archbishop Makarios III, who as ethnarch considered it his duty to champion the national aspirations of the Greek Cypriots, was deported to the Seychelles. He was released from exile in March 1957 and soon made his headquarters in Athens. By that time the operations of EOKA had been reduced, but on the other hand the Turkish Cypriot minority, led by Fazıl Küçük, expressed alarm and demanded either retrocession to Turkey or partition. Public opinion in Greece and Turkey rallied in support of the two communities, respectively; riots ensued, and Greek residents were expelled from Turkey. Despite mediation by the United Nations, the two sides reached no solution. | |||
The Greek and Turkish governments took a decisive step in February 1959, when they reached an agreement in Zürich. Later that same month, at a conference in London, the British government and representatives of the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities accepted the Greek-Turkish compromise. In 1960 treaties that made Cyprus an independent republic, with Britain retaining sovereignty over military bases at Akrotiri and Dhekélia, were ratified in Nicosia. According to the terms of the treaties, the new republic would not participate in a political or economic union with any other state, nor would it be subject to partition. Greece, Turkey, and Britain guaranteed the independence, integrity, and security of the republic, and Greece and Turkey agreed to respect the integrity of the areas remaining under British sovereignty. In December 1959 Makarios was elected president and Küçük vice president, both of whom could exercise a veto in matters relating to security, defense, and foreign affairs. Turkish Cypriots, who made up less than one-fifth of the population, were to represent three-tenths of the civil service and two-fifths of the army and to elect three-tenths of the House of Representatives, and a joint Greek and Turkish military headquarters was also to be established. | |||
The Republic of Cyprus | |||
The first general election occurred in July 1960. Of the 35 seats allotted to the Greek Cypriots, 30 were won by supporters of Makarios and 5 were allotted to the communist-led Progressive Party of the Working People (AKEL). All 15 Turkish Cypriot seats were won by supporters of Küçük. Cyprus became a republic on August 16, 1960, and was admitted as a member of the UN. The British government agreed to provide financial assistance over a period of five years, and Cyprus gained membership in the Commonwealth in March 1961. | |||
United Nations Peacekeeping Forces [Credit: J. Fred MacDonald & Associates]Despite these arrangements, the long-standing conflict between the Greek Cypriot majority and the Turkish Cypriot minority intensified following independence. The difficulties the government encountered in implementing some of the complicated provisions of the constitution, particularly regarding local government and finance, led Makarios to propose 13 amendments to Küçük in late 1963. These were rejected by the Turkish government and the Turkish Cypriots, and fighting broke out between the two Cypriot communities. As a result, the area controlled by the Turkish Cypriots was reduced to a few enclaves, and Nicosia was divided by a cease-fire line—known as the Green Line—policed by British troops. In March 1964 the UN Security Council agreed to send to Cyprus a multinational peacekeeping force, the mandate of which was extended repeatedly as the conflict continued. In 1964 the Turkish air force intervened after intensified fighting broke out in the northwest. Contingents of troops and officers from Greece and Turkey were taken into the island clandestinely to command and train the forces raised by the two communities. Grivas, who had been promoted to lieutenant general in the Greek army, returned from Greece to command the Greek Cypriot National Guard. In 1967 an incident in the southeast led to a Turkish ultimatum to Greece, backed by the threat of invasion. The military junta then ruling Greece complied by withdrawing the mainland contingents and General Grivas. An uneasy peace ensued, but intercommunal talks failed to produce a solution. | |||
Makarios was reelected president in 1968 by an overwhelming majority and won again in 1973. Although he had originally been a leader in the campaign for enosis, many Greek Cypriots and mainland Greeks believed that, by the time he became president, he was content with Cyprus’s independence. Angered, dissidents tried to assassinate Makarios in 1970 and 1973, and in 1973 he was denounced by the three suffragan bishops who were ecclesiastically subordinate to him. Meanwhile, Grivas had returned secretly to Cyprus in 1971 to resume the campaign for enosis; he died in Limassol in 1974. | |||
'''ESTABLISHMENT OF AN INDEPENDENT TURKISH STATE''' | |||
Cyprus: Greek- and Turkish-controlled areas [Credit: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]On July 15, 1974, a detachment of the National Guard, led by officers from mainland Greece, launched a coup to assassinate Makarios and establish enosis. They demolished the presidential palace, but Makarios escaped. A former EOKA member, Nikos Sampson, was proclaimed president of Cyprus. Five days later Turkish forces landed at Kyrenia to overthrow Sampson’s government. They were met by vigorous resistance, but the Turks were successful in establishing a bridgehead around Kyrenia and linking it with the Turkish sector of Nicosia. On July 23 Greece’s junta fell, and a democratic government under Konstantinos Karamanlis took power. At the same time, Sampson was replaced in Cyprus by Glafcos Clerides, who as president of the House of Representatives automatically succeeded the head of state in the latter’s absence. As required by treaty, the three guarantor powers—Britain, Greece, and Turkey—met for discussions in Geneva, but the Turkish advance continued until mid-August. By that time Turkey controlled roughly the northern third of the island. In December Makarios returned and resumed the presidency, and a few months later Turkish leaders proclaimed a Turkish Federated State of Cyprus under Rauf Denktash as president. Since that time the boundary between the two sectors has unofficially been known as “the Attila Line,” named for the Turkish army’s battle plan. | |||
In May 1983 Denktash broke off all intercommunal talks, and in November he proclaimed the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC); the republic’s independence was recognized only by Turkey. The UN Security Council condemned the move and repeated its demand, first made in 1974, that all foreign troops be withdrawn from the Republic of Cyprus. Renewed UN peace-proposal efforts in 1984 and 1985 were unsuccessful, and in May 1985 a constitution for the TRNC was approved by referendum. | |||
'''THE FAILURE OF INTERCOMMUNAL TALKS''' | |||
Negotiations between Clerides and Denktash, representing the Greek and Turkish Cypriots, respectively, had begun in 1968. They continued inconclusively until 1974, the Turks demanding and the Greeks rejecting the proposal for a bizonal federation with a weak central government. In February 1975 the Turkish Cypriots proclaimed the Turkish-occupied area the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus (a body calling itself the Provisional Cyprus-Turkish Administration had been in existence among Turkish Cypriots since 1967); Denktash announced that their purpose was not independence but federation. Talks were resumed in Vienna in 1975 and 1976 under UN auspices, and in early 1977 Makarios and Denktash agreed on acceptable guidelines for a bizonal federation. | |||
In August 1977 Makarios died, and Spyros Kyprianou, president of the House of Representatives, became acting president of the republic; he returned unopposed to that office for a five-year term in January 1978 and was reelected in 1983; Turkish Cypriots took no part in the 1983 election. | |||
Kyprianou lost his bid for a third term in 1988 to an independent candidate, George Vassiliou. He in turn lost by a narrow margin in 1993 to Clerides, a rightist, who was reelected in 1998. At first Clerides showed no willingness to deal with the Turkish Cypriot leader Denktash, but the two eventually met in New York City under UN auspices. The government of the Republic of Cyprus (composed solely of Greek Cypriots) began applying for membership to the European Union (EU) in 1990, though its admittance was repeatedly blocked by Turkey and its supporters. | |||
In late 2002 the EU offered Cyprus membership in its organization on the condition that reunification talks conclude by March 2003 (barring reunification, membership would go to the Greek Cypriot portion of the country only). Just weeks before the March deadline, Tassos Papadopoulos defeated Clerides and assumed the presidency of the Republic of Cyprus, but no agreement was reached. The following month TRNC leaders relaxed restrictions along the Green Line that divided the island, and, for the first time in some 30 years, Cypriots moved with relative freedom throughout the country. In 2004 Turkish Cypriots voted to accept a UN-backed reunification plan, while the Greek Cypriot community—led by Papadopoulos—overwhelmingly rejected the plan; as a result, Greek Cyprus alone was admitted to the EU in May 2004. Although the TRNC remained unrecognized, in the wake of the TRNC’s affirmative vote in the 2004 ballot, the EU expressed interest in reducing its isolation through measures such as aid and direct trade. In spite of this commitment, however, such measures were not immediately forthcoming. | |||
In early 2008 Papadopoulos was narrowly defeated in the first round of voting during the country’s presidential elections, a move thought to signal declining support by Greek Cypriots for the country’s continued division. Dimitris Christofias, leader of Cyprus’s communist party and an advocate of renewed unification efforts, was elected to the presidency shortly thereafter. Soon after his election, Christofias reached an agreement with Mehmet Ali Talat, the leader of the TRNC, to open a crossing at Ledra Street in the divided capital of Nicosia. The division of Ledra Street, split since 1964, had for many come to symbolize the broader partition of the island. Unification talks between Talat and Christofias were under way in later months, although efforts appeared to come under threat in April 2010 with the defeat of Talat and the election of Derviş Eroğlu to the TRNC presidency. However, Eroğlu, who had favoured independence for northern Cyprus over unification, insisted that negotiations would continue under his leadership. In legislative elections in May 2011, gains by the opposition Democratic Rally and a record number of abstentions were interpreted by many as a sign of voter dissatisfaction with the progress of reunification talks. | |||
Cyprus became entangled in the euro-zone debt crisis in early 2011 when the Cypriot banks’ large holdings of Greek government bonds made it impossible for Cyprus to borrow money from international markets. To control rising budget deficits, the Cypriot government enacted a package of austerity measures that included pay freezes for public-sector workers and cuts in social spending. After an EU-sanctioned restructuring of Greek sovereign debt in June 2012 inflicted huge losses on two of Cyprus’s largest banks, Cyprus requested a bailout from the EU and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). However, negotiations over the terms proceeded slowly, with Christofias unwilling to enact the bank reforms and privatizations requested by the EU and IMF. | |||
Presidential elections in February 2013 were dominated by the financial crisis and the bailout. Nicos Anastasiades, the centre-right candidate, pledged to seek a quick agreement with the EU and IMF, whereas his main rival, Stavros Malas, also favoured the bailout but expressed greater reservations about accepting austerity measures. Anastasiades was elected on February 24 with 57.5 percent of the vote. In his victory speech, Anastasiades affirmed that finalizing a bailout agreement would be his first priority as president. | |||
In March Cyprus agreed to terms for a bailout package that included €10 billion (about $13 billion) in loans from the EU and the IMF and required an estimated contribution of €7 billion (about $9 billion) from Cyprus, to be raised by restructuring the Cypriot banking sector, raising corporate taxes, and selling gold reserves. The total amount of Cyprus’s contribution to the bailout increased to €13 billion (about $17 billion) in April. | |||
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Latest revision as of 03:12, 7 November 2015
Lemesos • Limassol • Kyrenia • Larnaca • Gazimagusa • Famagusta • Nicosia • Paphos • Girne • Protaras • Guzelyurt • Morphou • Aradippou • Paralimni • Lefka •
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THE CYPRUS COAT OF ARMS
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 Location of Cyprus within the continent of Europe | |||
 Map of Cyprus | |||
 Flag Description of Cyprus:The flag of Cyprus was officially adopted on August 16, 1960. After gaining independence from a century of British rule, Cyprus now hoists this symbolic flag. The island is a copper shade representative of its name, Cyprus - the Greek word for copper. The crossed green olive branches symbolize the hoped for peace between the Turks and the Greeks. | |||
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Official name Kipriakí Dhimokratía (Greek); Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti (Turkish) (Republic of Cyprus); Kuzey Kıbrıs Türk Cumhuriyeti (Turkish) (Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus)1
Form of government unitary multiparty republic with a unicameral legislature (House of Representatives [802]), Republic of Cyprus; de facto republic with one legislative house (Assembly of the Republic [50]), Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
Head of state and government President: Nikos Anastasiadis, Republic of Cyprus; Dervis Eroglu, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
Capital Nicosia (Lefkosia), Republic of Cyprus; Nicosia (Lefkoşa), Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
Official languages Greek, Turkish, Republic of Cyprus; Turkish, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
Monetary unit euro (€), Republic of Cyprus; Turkish lira3 (TL), Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
Population (2013 est.) 1,192,0004COLLAPSE
Total area (sq mi) 2,276
Total area (sq km) 5,896
Urban-rural population
- Urban: not available
- Rural: not available
Life expectancy at birth
- Male: (2010–2011) 79 years
- Female: (2010–2011) 82.9 years
Literacy: percentage of population age 15 and over literate
- Male: not available
- Female: not available
GNI per capita (U.S.$) (2012) 26,000
- Two de facto states currently exist on the island of Cyprus: the Republic of Cyprus (ROC), predominantly Greek in character, occupying the southern two-thirds of the island, which is the original and still the internationally recognized de jure government of the whole island; and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), proclaimed unilaterally Nov. 15, 1983, on territory originally secured for the Turkish Cypriot population by the July 20, 1974, intervention of Turkey. Only Turkey recognizes the TRNC. Provision of separate data does not imply recognition of either state’s claims but is necessitated by the lack of unified data.
- Twenty-four seats reserved for Turkish Cypriots are not occupied.
- The new Turkish lira (YTL) was removed from circulation on Jan. 1, 2010, replaced by the Turkish lira.
- Includes 160,000–170,000 immigrants (mostly from Turkey); excludes 3,000 British military in the Sovereign Base Areas (SBA) in the ROC and 991 UN peacekeeping troops.
About Cyprus
A former British colony, Cyprus became independent in 1960 following years of resistance to British rule. Tensions between the Greek Cypriot majority and Turkish Cypriot minority came to a head in December 1963, when violence broke out in the capital of Nicosia. Despite the deployment of UN peacekeepers in 1964, sporadic intercommunal violence continued forcing most Turkish Cypriots into enclaves throughout the island. In 1974, a Greek Government-sponsored attempt to seize control of Cyprus was met by military intervention from Turkey, which soon controlled more than a third of the island. In 1983, the Turkish Cypriot-occupied area declared itself the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" ("TRNC"), but it is recognized only by Turkey. The election of a new Cypriot president in 2008 served as the impetus for the UN to encourage both the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities to reopen unification negotiations. In September 2008, the leaders of the two communities began discussions under UN auspices aimed at reuniting the divided island. The talks are ongoing. The entire island entered the EU on 1 May 2004, although the EU acquis - the body of common rights and obligations - applies only to the areas under the internationally recognized government, and is suspended in the areas administered by Turkish Cypriots. However, individual Turkish Cypriots able to document their eligibility for Republic of Cyprus citizenship legally enjoy the same rights accorded to other citizens of European Union states.
Cyprus, Greek Kípros, Turkish Kıbrıs, an island in the eastern Mediterranean Sea renowned since ancient times for its mineral wealth, superb wines and produce, and natural beauty.
A “golden-green leaf thrown into the Sea” and a land of “wild weather and volcanoes,” in the words of the Greek Cypriot poet Leonidas Malenis, Cyprus comprises tall mountains, fertile valleys, and wide beaches. Settled for more than 10 millennia, Cyprus stands at a cultural, linguistic, and historic crossroads between Europe and Asia. Its chief cities—the capital of Nicosia, Limassol, Famagusta, and Paphos—have absorbed the influences of generations of conquerors, pilgrims, and travelers and have an air that is both cosmopolitan and provincial. Today Cyprus is a popular tourist destination for visitors from Europe, favoured by honeymooners (as befits the legendary home of Aphrodite, the ancient Greek goddess of love), bird-watchers drawn by the island’s diversity of migratory species, and other vacationers.
In 1960 Cyprus became independent of Britain (it had been a crown colony since 1925) as the Republic of Cyprus. The long-standing conflict between the Greek Cypriot majority and the Turkish Cypriot minority and an invasion of the island by Turkish troops in 1974 produced an actual—although internationally unrecognized—partition of the island and led to the establishment in 1975 of a de facto Turkish Cypriot state in the northern third of the country. The Turkish Cypriot state made a unilateral declaration of independence in 1983 and adopted the name Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Its independence was recognized only by Turkey.
Dateline: Monday, March 18, 2013. Cyprus President Nicos Anastasiades announced today that he is battling against eurozone demands that all Cyprus bank customers pay a one-time levy in return for a bailout...>>>Read On<<<
Geography of Cyprus
The Land
Cyprus, Greek Kípros, Turkish Kıbrıs, an island in the eastern Mediterranean Sea renowned since ancient times for its mineral wealth, superb wines and produce, and natural beauty.
A “golden-green leaf thrown into the Sea” and a land of “wild weather and volcanoes,” in the words of the Greek Cypriot poet Leonidas Malenis, Cyprus comprises tall mountains, fertile valleys, and wide beaches. Settled for more than 10 millennia, Cyprus stands at a cultural, linguistic, and historic crossroads between Europe and Asia. Its chief cities—the capital of Nicosia, Limassol, Famagusta, and Paphos—have absorbed the influences of generations of conquerors, pilgrims, and travelers and have an air that is both cosmopolitan and provincial. Today Cyprus is a popular tourist destination for visitors from Europe, favoured by honeymooners (as befits the legendary home of Aphrodite, the ancient Greek goddess of love), bird-watchers drawn by the island’s diversity of migratory species, and other vacationers.
In 1960 Cyprus became independent of Britain (it had been a crown colony since 1925) as the Republic of Cyprus. The long-standing conflict between the Greek Cypriot majority and the Turkish Cypriot minority and an invasion of the island by Turkish troops in 1974 produced an actual—although internationally unrecognized—partition of the island and led to the establishment in 1975 of a de facto Turkish Cypriot state in the northern third of the country. The Turkish Cypriot state made a unilateral declaration of independence in 1983 and adopted the name Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Its independence was recognized only by Turkey.
Land
Cyprus lies about 40 miles (65 km) south of Turkey, 60 miles (100 km) west of Syria, and 480 miles (770 km) southeast of mainland Greece. Its maximum length, from Cape Arnauti in the west to Cape Apostolos Andreas at the end of the northeastern peninsula, is 140 miles (225 km); the maximum north-south extent is 60 miles (100 km). It is the third largest Mediterranean island, after Sicily and Sardinia.
Relief
The rugged island of Cyprus resembles a saucepan, with the handle extending northeastward from the main part. The general pattern of its roughly 400-mile (640-km) coastline is indented and rocky, with long, sandy beaches. The Kyrenia Mountains—the western portion of which is also known as the Pentadaktylos for its five-fingered peak—extend for 100 miles (160 km) parallel to and just inland from the northern coast. It is the southernmost range of the great Alpine-Himalayan chain in the eastern Mediterranean; like much of that extensive mountain belt, it is formed largely of deformed masses of Mesozoic limestone.
The Troodos Mountains in the south and southwest are of great interest to geologists, who have concluded that the range, made up of igneous rock, was formed from molten rock beneath the deep ocean (Tethys) that once separated the continents of Eurasia and Afro-Arabia. The range stretches eastward about 50 miles (80 km) from near the island’s west coast to the 2,260-foot (689-metre) Stavrovouni peak, about 12 miles (19 km) from the southeastern coast. The range’s summit, Mount Olympus (also called Mount Troodos), reaches an elevation of 6,401 feet (1,951 metres) and is the island’s highest point.
Between the two ranges lies the Mesaoria Plain (its name means “Between the Mountains”), which is flat and low-lying and extends from Morphou Bay in the west to Famagusta Bay in the east. Roughly in the centre of the plain is Nicosia. The plain is the principal cereal-growing area in the island.
Drainage and soils
The major rivers in Cyprus originate in the Troodos Mountains. The Pedieos, which is the largest, flows eastward toward Famagusta Bay; the Serakhis flows northwestward and the Karyotis northward to Morphou Bay; and the Kouris flows southward to Episkopi Bay. The rivers are fed entirely from the runoff of winter precipitation; in summer they become dry courses. The island’s major soil types consist of imperfect, gravelly lithosols found in the Troodos and Kyrenia mountains and agriculturally productive vertisols located in the Mesaoria Plain and along the southeastern coast. Other, less-productive soils include solonchaks and solonetz soils. These latter are found only in isolated saline pockets throughout the island.
Climate
Cyprus has an intense Mediterranean climate, with a typically strongly marked seasonal rhythm. Hot, dry summers (June to September) and rainy winters (November to March) are separated by short autumn and spring seasons (October and April to May, respectively) of rapid change. Autumn and winter precipitation, on which agriculture and water supply depend, is variable. Average annual precipitation is about 20 inches (500 mm). The lowest average precipitation of 14 inches (350 mm) occurs at Nicosia, and the highest, 41 inches (1,050 mm), is on Mount Olympus. Summer temperatures in Nicosia range between an average daily maximum of 98 °F (37 °C) and an average daily minimum of 70 °F (21 °C); in winter the range is between 59 °F (15 °C) and 41 °F (5 °C). From December to March the Troodos range experiences several weeks of below-freezing night temperatures, and snowfall is considerable.
Plant and animal life
There is a narrow fertile plain along the northern coast, where the vegetation is largely evergreen and includes olive, carob, and citrus trees. The Troodos range has pine, dwarf oak, cypress, and cedar forest coverings. The southern and western slopes are extensively planted with vineyards. Between autumn and spring the Mesaoria Plain is green and colourful, with an abundance of wildflowers, flowering bushes, and shrubs; there are also patches of woodland in which eucalyptus and various types of acacia, cypress, and lowland pine are found. Orange plantations dot the island’s northwestern end in the area around Morphou.
Fossil remains of elephants and hippopotamuses have been found in the Kyrenia area, and in ancient times there were large numbers of deer and boar. The only large wild animal now surviving is the agrino, a subspecies of wild sheep related to the mouflon of the western Mediterranean; it is under strict protection in a small forested area of the Troodos range. Small game is abundant but keenly hunted. Snakes were widespread in ancient times, giving the island the name Ophiussa, “the Abode of Snakes”; they are now relatively rare. Green and loggerhead turtles, which are protected by law, breed on the beaches along the coast.
Cyprus lies on major migration routes for birds. In spring and autumn millions pass over the island, while many species winter there. Among the numerous resident species are francolin and chukar partridges.
Demography of Cyprus
The People
- Ethnic groups and languages
The people of Cyprus represent two main ethnic groups, Greek and Turkish. The Greek Cypriots, who constitute nearly four-fifths of the population, descended from a mixture of aboriginal inhabitants and immigrants from the Peloponnese who colonized Cyprus starting about 1200 bc and assimilated subsequent settlers up to the 16th century. Roughly one-fifth of the population are Turkish Cypriots, descendants of the soldiers of the Ottoman army that conquered the island in 1571 and of immigrants from Anatolia brought in by the sultan’s government. Since 1974 additional immigrants from Turkey have been brought in to work vacant land and increase the total labour force.
The language of the majority is Greek and of the minority, Turkish. There are also a small number of Arabic-speaking Maronite Christians, as well as a small group who speak Armenian. These groups each total only a few thousand speakers, and they are mostly bilingual, with either Turkish or Greek their second language. English is widely spoken and understood. Illiteracy is extremely low, the result of an excellent educational system.
- Religion
The Greek Cypriots are primarily Eastern Orthodox Christians. Their church, the Church of Cyprus, is autocephalous (not under the authority of any patriarch); this privilege was granted to Archbishop Anthemius in ad 488 by the Byzantine emperor Zeno. Under the Ottoman Empire, the archbishop of the Church of Cyprus was made responsible for the secular as well as the religious behaviour of the Orthodox community and given the title ethnarch. The Turkish Cypriots are Sunni Muslims. There are also smaller Maronite, Armenian, Roman Catholic, and Anglican Christian communities on the island.
- Settlement patterns
The Cypriots were traditionally a largely rural people, but a steady drift toward towns began in the early 20th century. The census of 1973 recorded six towns, defined as settlements of more than 5,000 inhabitants, and nearly 600 villages. Following the Turkish occupation in 1974 of the northern portion of the island, this pattern changed, the result of the need to resettle some 180,000 Greek Cypriot refugees who had fled from the Turkish-controlled area to the southern part of the island. The accommodations built for them were situated mainly in the neighbourhood of the three towns south of the line of demarcation, particularly in the Nicosia suburban area, which was still controlled by the government of the Republic of Cyprus. In contrast, the northern portion of the island is now more sparsely populated despite the influx of Turkish Cypriots from the south and the introduction of Turkish settlers from the mainland.
The six towns recorded in the 1973 census, under the undivided republic, were the headquarters of the island’s six administrative districts. Of these Kyrenia (Turkish: Girne), Famagusta (Greek: Ammókhostos; Turkish: Mağusa), and the northern half of Nicosia are to the north of the demarcation line drawn in 1974 and are in Turkish Cypriot hands; that part of Nicosia is the administrative centre of the Turkish Cypriot sector. Limassol, Larnaca, Paphos, and the southern part of Nicosia remained in Greek Cypriot hands after 1974; that part of Nicosia is the nominal capital of the entire Republic of Cyprus and the administrative centre of the Greek Cypriot sector.
- Demographic trends
At times Cypriots have emigrated in large numbers, and it is estimated that as many live abroad as on the island itself. The great majority of emigrants have gone to the United Kingdom or to the English-speaking countries of Australia, South Africa, the United States, and Canada. Waves of heavy emigration followed the negotiation of independence in 1960 and the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus in 1974. The population decreased slightly between mid-1974 and 1977 because of emigration, war losses, and a temporary decline in fertility. After 1974 the increase in numbers of Greek Cypriots leaving the island in search of work, especially in the Middle East, contributed to a decline in population, but this tapered off in the 1990s. More than two-thirds of the population is urban.
Economy of Cyprus
- The economy after independence
Between 1960 and 1973 the Republic of Cyprus, operating a free-enterprise economy based on agriculture and trade, achieved a standard of living higher than most of its neighbours, with the exception of Israel. This progress was substantially assisted by various agencies of the United Nations (UN), operating through the UN Development Program. Generous financial assistance was given by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund in the form of loans for specific development projects, including electricity supply, port development, and sewerage systems. Individual foreign countries also made some aid available to Cyprus. These countries and organizations provided experts to advise economic planning and initiate productive projects; scholarships and grants provided for the training of Cypriot specialists in these areas. During this time gross domestic product (GDP) and per capita income grew substantially, agricultural production doubled, industrial production and exports of goods and services more than tripled, and tourism became a significant earner of foreign exchange.
- Effects of partition
The Turkish occupation of nearly two-fifths of the country in 1974, involving the displacement of about one-third of the total population, dealt a serious blow to the island’s economic development. Greek Cypriot losses of land and personal property in the occupied areas were substantial, and they also lost Famagusta, the only deepwater port, and the Nicosia International Airport. GDP of the Greek Cypriot sector dropped by about one-third between 1973 and 1975. Through vigorous efforts, real growth was resumed in the area that remained under the control of the government of the Republic of Cyprus, and between 1975 and 1983 the annual rate of growth was estimated to average about 10 percent. Since 1983 the economy of the Greek Cypriot sector has flourished, and unemployment and inflation have remained relatively low. Tourism has provided the main leverage of economic growth, and many areas have undergone technological upgrading. In the 1990s the Greek Cypriot sector increasingly transformed itself into a centre of international transit trade, merchant shipping, banking, and related services. The republic’s Greek-run government established special tariff arrangements with the European Union and from 1990 sought admittance to the organization, whose member countries account for about half of the island’s imports. The Greek Cypriot sector joined the EU in 2004 and adopted the euro as its official currency in 2008.he Turkish-occupied area has not experienced the same prosperity, however, and the Turkish government has had to subsidize its economy. The Turkish area still depends heavily on agriculture. Trade between the two areas ceased in 1974, and the two economies have remained independent. However, the southern zone continues to supply the northern zone with electricity, and the northern zone still processes the sewage of Greek Nicosia.
- Agriculture, forestry, and fishing
More than one-third of the island’s arable land is irrigated, mainly in the Mesaoria Plain and around Paphos in the southwest. Woodlands and forests occupy about one-fifth of the total land area. Landholdings are generally small, highly fragmented, and dispersed under traditional laws of inheritance. A program of land consolidation was enacted in 1969; it met with resistance, particularly from Turkish Cypriot landowners, and was only very slowly implemented, but it has proceeded with considerable success in the Greek Cypriot sector.
The major crops of the Greek Cypriot sector include grapes, deciduous fruits, potatoes, cereal grains, vegetables, olives, and carobs. The area under Turkish occupation produces the bulk of the country’s citrus fruits, wheat, barley, carrots, tobacco, and green fodder.
Livestock—especially sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry—and livestock products account for about one-third of the island’s total agricultural production. Some cattle are also raised.
Cyprus was once famous for its extensive forests, but the demand for timber for shipbuilding by successive conquerors from the 7th century bc onward and extensive felling for building and for fuel have cleared most of them. Under the British administration a vigorous policy of conservation and reforestation was pursued, and the Cyprus Forestry College was established at Prodhromos, on the western slopes of Mount Olympus; the Greek Cypriot government continues to operate an ambitious program of forest preservation and development. Forests are found mostly in the mountainous areas and in the Paphos district.
The fishing industry is small, in part because coastal waters are deficient in the nutrients and associated plankton needed to sustain large fish populations. Although the industry has shown some growth in the Greek Cypriot sector, most fish is imported.
- Resources and power
Cyprus was for many centuries a noted producer of copper; in Greek the name of the island and the name of the metal are identical. As early as 2500 bc its mines were being exploited. After other mineral sources were discovered, the mines remained neglected for centuries until they were reopened shortly before World War I. They were subsequently exploited from 1925 until they were closed during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Production resumed after World War II, and copper and other minerals—iron pyrites, asbestos, gypsum, chrome ore—have contributed somewhat to external trade; bentonite (a form of clay), umber, and ocher are also exported. The island’s most important copper mines are located in the area of Skouriotissa in the Turkish-occupied zone, but copper ore reserves have declined substantially. Extensive quarries for stone and other building materials are for local use.
As there are no known deposits of fossil fuels, Cyprus must import all the petroleum needed to power vehicles as well as to generate electricity, which is produced by thermal power stations. The country also continues to be one of the world’s major producers of solar energy. Although there are several dams, an adequate water supply remains a constant problem.
- Manufacturing
Cyprus has limited quantities of raw materials, and this situation restricts the scope for industrial activity. Before the partition of the island, most manufactB��jg was of goods produced for the domestic market by small owner-operated plants, and a considerable number of those plants were located in the area occupied by the Turks in 1974. Industries in the Republic of Cyprus were subsequently reoriented toward export production, and many factories were built in the south. Petroleum refining, cement and asbestos-pipe manufacturing, and thermal electricity production are the republic’s heavy industries, and its light industries produce goods such as clothing, footwear, beverages, and some machinery and transport equipment. Printing and publishing also contribute to the Greek Cypriot economy.
- Finance and trade
The Central Bank of Cyprus issues the Cyprus pound, while Turkish lira are circulated in the Turkish-occupied area. The Republic of Cyprus began to expand financial services, including offshore banking, in 1982. Light manufactures, particularly clothing and footwear, and foodstuffs, including potatoes and citrus fruit, constitute the republic’s major exports. Petroleum, petroleum products, foodstuffs, and machinery are the chief imports. Chronic trade deficits are offset by receipts from tourists, remittances sent home by expatriate Greek Cypriots, and receipts from the British military bases on the island. In the Turkish sector citrus fruits, potatoes, carobs, and textiles are the principal exports; foodstuffs, machinery, and transportation equipment are the major imports.
- Services
Tourism became one of the major components of Cyprus’s economy after 1960. Most of the tourist accommodations, however, were in the portion of the island occupied by the Turks in 1974. After the partition the tourist trade recovered rapidly in the Greek Cypriot sector: to counter the loss of Kyrenia and the Famagusta-Varosha area, which had been the leading seaside resorts, the southern coastal towns of Limassol, Larnaca, and Paphos were further developed to accommodate tourists. Since the mid-1980s, tourism has been the largest source of foreign income for the Greek Cypriot sector.
- Labour and taxation
With the exception of the years immediately following the Turkish invasion, Cyprus has maintained a low overall level of unemployment—among the lowest in Europe—and labour union activity has been strong, with nearly two-thirds of Cypriot workers belonging to unions. Roughly one-fourth of the Cypriot workforce is employed in trade, while the service industry is the second largest employer, with more than one-fifth of workers engaged in some service-related occupation, mostly in the tourism sector. Agriculture, once the mainstay of the Cypriot economy, now employs less than one-tenth of the workforce.
Taxation is a major source of state revenue, and the government of the Republic of Cyprus levies direct taxes, including an income tax, and indirect taxes, including various excise taxes and a value-added tax introduced in the mid-1990s.
- Transportation and telecommunications
In Roman times the island had a well-developed road system, but, by the time of the British occupation in 1878, the only carriage road was between Nicosia and Larnaca. An extensive new road network was built under the British administration. A narrow-gauge public railway proved uneconomical and was closed in the early 1950s, and since then inland travel has been entirely by road. The Greek Cypriot sector continues to develop and maintain an extensive network of modern highways. In 1994 a highway connecting Nicosia, Anthoupolis, and Kokkini Trimithia was completed.
International air services provide connections to all parts of Europe and the Middle East and to some areas of Africa. Nicosia International Airport was closed in 1974, and the airport at Larnaca was developed instead to service the Greek Cypriot sector. An airport at Paphos, also handling international flights, opened in 1983. Flights to the Turkish-occupied sector arrive from or through Turkey and use an airport at Geƈitikale (Lefkoniko).
There is no significant coastal shipping, and much of the merchant marine registered to Cyprus is foreign-owned. The great bulk of the island’s international trade remains seaborne, and the main ports of the Greek Cypriot sector, Limassol and Larnaca, are thoroughly modernized; Vasilikos is a major industrial port. Turkish shipping uses Famagusta.
The Greek Cypriot sector became a major international telecommunications hub in the 1990s, installing submarine fibre-optic cables and satellite linkup facilities.
Government and Society of Cyprus
- Constitutional framework
The constitution of the Republic of Cyprus, adopted in 1960, provided that executive power be exercised by a Greek Cypriot president and a Turkish Cypriot vice president, elected to five-year terms by universal suffrage, and that there be a Council of Ministers (cabinet) comprising seven Greek Cypriot and three Turkish Cypriot members. It also called for an elected House of Representatives with 50 seats, divided between Greek and Turkish Cypriots in the proportion of 35 to 15 and elected for terms of five years.
The constitution, derived from the negotiations in Zürich, Switzerland, in 1959 between representatives of the governments of Greece and Turkey, was not widely accepted by the citizens of the new republic. The Greek Cypriots, whose struggle against the British had been for enosis (union with Greece) and not for independence, regretted the failure to achieve this national aspiration. As a result, it was not long after the establishment of the republic that the Greek Cypriot majority began to regard many of the provisions, particularly those relating to finance and to local government, as unworkable. Proposals for amendments were rejected by the Turkish government, and, after the outbreak of fighting between the two Cypriot communities in late 1963, the constitution was suspended. In the Republic of Cyprus after the Turkish occupation of 1974, the constitution’s provisions remained in force where practicable; the main formal change has been the increase in the number of seats in the House of Representatives to 80, although the 24 seats allocated to Turks have remained vacant.
On the Turkish side of the demarcation line, there have been, since 1974, a popularly elected president, prime minister, and legislative assembly, all serving five-year terms of office. A new constitution was approved for the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) by its electorate in 1985.
Local government in the Republic of Cyprus is at the district, municipal, rural municipality, and village levels. District officers are appointed by the government; local councils are elected, as are the mayors of municipalities.
- Justice
The legal code of Cyprus is based on Roman law. In the Greek Cypriot zone judges are appointed by the government, but the judiciary is entirely independent of the executive power. The Supreme Court is the highest court and also serves as the final appeals court in the republic. A Permanent Assize Court has criminal jurisdiction over the whole island, and district courts handle criminal, civil, and admiralty matters. The Turkish Cypriot zone has a similar system of justice.
- Political process
The oldest established political party in the Republic of Cyprus is the Progressive Party of the Working People (Anorthotiko Komma Ergazomenou Laou; AKEL), founded in 1941. A pro-Moscow communist party that controlled the principal trade union federation, it received about one-third of the vote in the first 25 years of the Republic of Cyprus. Following the collapse of communism in Russia and eastern Europe, AKEL lost much of its support, with some reformists breaking away to form their own party. Other parties have had varying success. Among them are the Movement of Social Democrats EDEK (Kinima Sosialdimokraton EDEK) and the Democratic Rally (Dimokratikos Synagermos). In the Turkish Cypriot zone the major parties include the National Unity Party (Ulusal Birlik Partisi), the Communal Liberation Party (Toplumcu Kurtuluș Partisi), and the Republican Turkish Party (Cumhuriyetc̦i Türk Partisi).
- Security
The island of Cyprus is home to a complicated mixture of military forces. The Republic of Cyprus has a small national guard consisting of volunteers and conscripts, and men between the ages of 18 and 50 are required to serve up to 26 months in the military. The army of the TRNC requires 24 months of military service from men within that same age-group. Likewise, both sides maintain close military ties with their respective kinsmen on the mainland; the Republic of Cyprus’s national guard has a large number of officers from the Greek army, and Turkey maintains a large garrison in northern Cyprus. In addition, because of the continued tensions between the two sides—which occasionally have flared into violence—the UN has maintained peacekeeping troops in Cyprus (UNFICYP) who police the demilitarized zone that divides the country; the United Kingdom also maintains two sovereign military bases in Cyprus.
- Health
Health standards in Cyprus are high because of a favourable climate and well-organized public and private health services. Since the eradication of malaria shortly after World War II and, later, that of echinococcosis (hydatid disease), the island has been free from major diseases. Life expectancy is about 75 years for men and 80 years for women, and the infant mortality rate is low.
- Housing
Housing became a major preoccupation of the Republic of Cyprus following the Turkish invasion of 1974 and the subsequent displacement and relocation of Greek Cypriots to the south of the country. The government engaged in a long-term program to stimulate the construction of low-cost housing, provided low-interest loans for home buyers, and temporarily housed refugees in homes abandoned by Turkish Cypriots who fled to the north during the war. The government has continued to provide rent subsidies for thousands of refugee families and has also provided housing assistance for other low-income families.
- Education
In the Greek Cypriot sector, 12 grades of free education are provided for children beginning at age 5; schooling is compulsory through age 15. The last three years may be taken at a technical or vocational school or at a lyceum, the latter offering courses stressing such fields as classical studies, the sciences, or economics. Postsecondary facilities include schools for teacher training, technical instruction, hospitality training, tourism guides, nursing, public health, and police work. Greek Cypriots opened the University of Cyprus in 1992; many students, however, attend universities abroad, especially in Greece, Britain, or the United States.
The education system in the Turkish sector is administered separately, and the Turkish Cypriots maintain an excellent public-school system with facilities similar to those in the Greek sector and several institutions of specialized postsecondary education. As in the Greek sector, many Turkish Cypriots travel abroad (most to Turkey) for postsecondary education. The fine educational opportunities provided by both the Greek and the Turkish administrations have not been without drawbacks, as many of the most qualified Cypriot graduates—both Greek and Turkish—seek employment abroad.
Culture Life of Cyprus
- Daily life and social customs
The culture of Cyprus is divided between the northern Turkish and the southern Greek sections of the country. Since 1974 the Turkish community in northern Cyprus has promoted its own Turkish and Islamic culture, supporting its own newspapers and periodicals and changing many place-names to Turkish. The anniversary of the proclamation of the TRNC (November 15) is celebrated in the north, as are traditional Muslim holidays.
Greek Cypriots speak a dialect of Greek and maintain a somewhat ambivalent attitude about mainland Greeks. However, most Greek Cypriots who go abroad for their postsecondary education travel to Greece, and these young people share in the popular culture of Greece, which is itself increasingly cosmopolitan. Even so, Greek Cypriots take care to preserve their traditional culture and to observe such important holidays as Easter (and the pre-Easter Carnival) and Anthestiria, a spring flower festival.
Despite years of civil conflict in the 1950s, ’60s, and ’70s, the younger generation of Greek Cypriots has grown up in a relatively peaceful, settled, and prosperous society that encompasses aspects of traditional culture while welcoming world trends in dress and entertainment. These trends were introduced not only by the mass media but also by a tremendous influx of young travelers, whose presence can be felt in the dance clubs and bars that now abound throughout the island.
Greek and Turkish Cypriots alike enjoy a rich tradition of handicrafts and folk art. Among the best-known expressions of this art internationally are Cypriot lacework—particularly that produced in the town of Lefkara near Nicosia—and silversmithing, which is practiced throughout the island.
Geography has left Cyprus heir to numerous culinary traditions—particularly those of the Levant, Anatolia, and Greece—but some dishes, such as the island’s halloumi cheese, pourgouri (a dish of boiled cracked wheat), hiromeri (a pressed, smoked, and aged leg of pork), and sucuk (a confection made of thickened grape juice and almonds), are purely Cypriot. As in much of the Mediterranean world, the appetizer, or meze, in Cyprus plays a central role, often taking the place of the entrée. Fresh fruits and vegetables are a part of every meal, and Cyprus has long been famous for its wine, viticulture having been practiced on the island for thousands of years.
- The arts
Cyprus has figured in the literature of Europe for thousands of years, from the works of Ionic lyric poets to modern travel memoirs such as Lawrence Durrell’s Bitter Lemons (1957). Literary traditions are strong on the island itself. Drawing on oral tradition, on classical forms—such as the tekerleme (rigmarole) and mani (quatrain)—and on contemporary styles, Turkish Cypriot singers such as Acar Akalın and Neșe Yașin have developed a body of work that is well known on the Turkish mainland though largely untranslated into other languages. Contemporary Greek Cypriot poets are somewhat better known beyond the island, having been translated into other European languages. Several literary journals are published, and small presses issue hundreds of books in Greek and Turkish each year. Poetry is also an important element in the growing “peace culture” movement, which seeks to forge social and cultural links across the island’s ethnic divide.
Numerous painters and sculptors work in Cyprus, and the Cultural Services office keeps the state’s collection of modern Cypriot art on permanent exhibition and sponsors the annual Kypria International Festival of music and theatrical performances. In the village of Lemba, near Paphos, the Cyprus College of Art runs courses for postgraduate art students. The government encourages young composers, musicians, and folk dance groups. Both the Turkish and the Greek Cypriot communities have active film industries, and Cypriot motion pictures have received a number of awards in international competitions. Classical and folk music enjoy a wide following among Cypriots of all ages, and the respective folk music traditions of the Greek and Turkish communities, combined with international styles, have contributed to the development of native Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot popular music styles.
- Cultural institutions
The ancient cultural traditions of Cyprus are maintained partly by private enterprise and partly by government sponsorship, especially through the Cultural Services office of the Republic of Cyprus’s Ministry of Education and Culture, which publishes books, awards prizes for literature, and promotes Cypriot publications. Cities have public libraries, as do many rural communities. The government-sponsored Cyprus Theatre Organization stages plays by contemporary Cypriot dramatists as well as classical works. The ancient theatres of Salamis and Soli in the Turkish sector and Kourion (Curium) in the Greek portion have been restored; a variety of plays are staged at Kourion, and a Greek theatre has been built at Nicosia.
Many noteworthy buildings survive from the Lusignan and Venetian periods, in particular the Gothic cathedrals at Nicosia and Famagusta and the Abbey of Bellapais near Kyrenia. There are other Gothic churches throughout the island. Orthodox Christians also built numerous churches in a distinctive style that was often influenced by the Gothic; the interiors of these illustrate the continued development of Byzantine art. Cyprus has notable examples of medieval and Renaissance military architecture, such as the castles of Kyrenia, St. Hilarion, Buffavento, and Kantara and the elaborate Venetian fortifications of Nicosia and Famagusta.
Additional sites of cultural significance include the town of Paphos, held to be the legendary birthplace of Aphrodite, which houses a temple constructed in her honour dating from the 12th century bc; the painted churches of the Troodos region, a complex of Byzantine churches and monasteries renowned for their display of murals in Byzantine and post-Byzantine styles; and the Neolithic settlements at Choirokotia, inhabited from the 7th to the 4th millennium bc. These sites were designated UNESCO World Heritage sites in 1980, 1985, and 1998, respectively.
- Sports and recreation
Sports play a major role in the Greek Cypriot community, as they have since Classical times, when stadiums stood at the heart of the island’s chief cities. Through the Cyprus Sports Organization, an official body formed in 1969, the government has built stadiums, sports halls, and swimming pools and has subsidized associations and clubs for a wide spectrum of sports; there are a professional football (soccer) league and a semiprofessional basketball league.
Cypriot athletes began to compete in the Olympic Games in 1924 but as members of the Greek national team. In 1978 the Cyprus National Olympic Committee was admitted to the International Olympic Committee, and the Republic of Cyprus has been sending its own national team—consisting of athletes from the Greek Cypriot sector only—to the Games since 1980. There have been unsuccessful attempts at athletic cooperation or contests between the Turkish and Greek communities, and international sports-governing bodies have not recognized the sports associations in the Turkish sector of Cyprus.
- Media and publishing
Television and radio are controlled in the Greek sector by the semigovernmental Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation and are financed by government subsidies, taxes, and advertising. Throughout the island, broadcasts are in Greek, Turkish, English, and Armenian, and daily and weekly newspapers are published in Greek, Turkish, and English. The Turkish sector receives broadcasts from Turkey.
History of Cyprus
- Earliest periods
Tools and other artifacts provide the earliest evidence of human activity on Cyprus; artifacts and burned animal bones found at Aetokremnos on the southern coast have been dated to about 12,000 years ago. Whether these finds indicate a permanent human occupation of the island or intermittent visits by seafaring hunter-gatherers remains a source of debate. The first known settlement, dated as early as 9,000 years ago, was at Khirokitia (near the southern coast), a town of about 2,000 inhabitants who lived in well-built two-story round stone houses. The presence of small quantities of obsidian, a type of volcanic rock not native to the island, is the only sign of the island’s contact with other cultures. Khirokitia and several smaller associated settlements disappeared after a few centuries, leaving the island uninhabited for nearly 2,000 years. The beginning of the next period of habitation dates to 4500–4000 bc; the sites of small villages from that time have been excavated north of Kourion at Sotira near the southern coast and also in the Kyrenia Mountains, and ornaments of picrolite (a variety of soapstone) and copper have also been found in those areas.
- THE BRONZE AGE
The Chalcolithic Period (Copper Age), which dates from 3000 to 2500 bc, was followed by the Bronze Age. Several styles of well-made decorative pottery from the Middle Bronze Age (1900–1600 bc) demonstrate advanced craftsmanship, and imports from Crete, Anatolia, Syria, and Egypt prove that external trade had begun by this time. It is possible that the name Alashiya or Alasia, both of which occur in Hittite and Egyptian records in connection with the supply of copper, refers to Cyprus. These trade links probably accounted for the foundation of new settlements in the eastern part of the island that became international trading centres.
The Late Bronze Age (1600–1050 bc) was one of the most formative periods of the life of ancient Cyprus. The island’s international contacts extended from the Aegean Sea to the Levant and the Nile River delta. (Thutmose III of Egypt claimed Cyprus as one of his conquests about 1500 bc.) Writing, in the form of a linear script known as Cypro-Minoan, was borrowed from Crete. Cypriot craftsmen were distinguished for fine jewelry, ivory carving, and bronze figures. From about 1400 bc Mycenaean pottery was imported from mainland Greece, and it is possible that Mycenaean artists accompanied the merchants. There is evidence of Greek immigration from the Peloponnese after 1200 bc, with the collapse of Mycenaean civilization. West of Famagusta was Engomi, the principal city and port; its massive city walls and houses of hewn stone demonstrate a high level of prosperity.
- GREEK IMMIGRATION
The immigration of settlers from Greece, which had begun at least by 1200, led to the foundation of Greek kingdoms covering most of the island, and, since the start of the 1st millennium bc, the Greek language has been predominant in Cyprus; the fact that the dialectal form in which it first appears is known as Arcado-Cypriot confirms traditions of the Peloponnesian origin—and specifically of the Arcadian origin—of the immigrants. They founded new cities, which became the capitals of six ancient Greek kingdoms on Cyprus: Curium (Greek: Kourion), Paphos, Marion, Soli (Greek: Soloi), Lapithos, and Salamis. About 800 bc a Phoenician colony was founded at Citium (Greek: Kition), near modern Larnaca, as a dependency of the mother city, Tyre. A seventh kingdom, Amathus, remained for some time under the control of the earlier indigenous inhabitants; the language used there was called Eteo-Cypriot (“True Cypriot”) by the Greeks. Amathus became active politically, especially in external trade relations. Spectacular chariot burials of the royal family of Salamis—which closely match descriptions found in the Homeric poems, suggesting inspiration by them—are evidence of an advancing civilization in the late Iron Age.
- External political influences
ASSYRIAN AND EGYPTIAN DOMINATION
In 709 bc Sargon II of Assyria erected a stela at Citium recording the fact that seven Cypriot kings had paid him homage; subsequent Assyrian documents mention 11 tributary kingdoms: the seven already cited plus Citium, Kyrenia, Tamassos, and Idalium. This subordination to Assyria, probably rather nominal, lasted until about 663. For the next hundred years, Cyprus enjoyed a period of complete independence and massive development. Epic poetry grew increasingly popular, and much was written on the island; Stasinus of Cyprus, credited with the authorship of the lost epic poem Cypria, was highly regarded among the poets of this literary style in the 7th century. Bronze, iron, delicate jewelry, and ivory work are characteristic of this period; notable examples are the ivory throne and bedstead excavated from a royal tomb at Salamis dating from about 700 bc.
When the Assyrian empire finally broke up at the end of the 7th century bc, Egypt, under the Saite dynasty, became the predominant power in the eastern Mediterranean. About 569 the Cypriot kingdoms recognized the pharaoh Ahmose II as their overlord. Direct Egyptian influence was not always apparent, but many limestone sculptures reproduced Egyptian conventions in dress, and some statues were directly inspired by Egyptian models. A more important influence in the late Archaic period (750–475 bc) came from the artistic schools of Ionia, which was also probably the same source of the inspiration for issuing coinage; the first Cypriot coins were circulated for King Euelthon of Salamis in 560–525 bc.
THE PERSIAN EMPIRE
In 525 bc the Cypriot kings transferred their allegiance to the Achaemenid (Persian) conquerors of Egypt. The Cypriots retained their independence until the accession of Darius I in 522 but were then incorporated into the fifth satrapy of the Persian empire. When the Ionians revolted in 499, all the kingdoms of Cyprus except Amathus joined them; the revolt was subsequently suppressed, culminating in sieges of Paphos and Soli. During Xerxes I’s invasion of Greece in 480 bc, the Cypriot kings, like the Ionians, contributed naval contingents to his forces. Cyprus remained under Persian rule during the 5th century in spite of a major Athenian expedition there in about 450. Evagoras, who became king of Salamis in 411 bc, maintained a pro-Hellenic policy—with some help from Athens—and succeeded in extending his rule over a large portion of the island. He was defeated by the Persians in 381 and was assassinated three years later. After the victory of Alexander the Great over the last Achaemenid ruler, Darius III, at Issus in 333 bc, the Cypriot kings rallied to Alexander and assisted him at the siege of Tyre. During the Classical period (475–325 bc), Cypriot art came under strong Attic influence.
HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN RULE
Alexander allowed the Cypriot kingdoms to continue but took from them the right to issue coinage. After his death in 323, his successors fought for control of Cyprus. The eventual victor was Ptolemy I of Egypt, who suppressed the kingdoms and made the island a province of his Egyptian kingdom. He forced the last king of Salamis, Nicocreon, to commit suicide in 310 bc, together with all his family. For two and a half centuries, Cyprus remained a Ptolemaic possession, ruled by a strategus, or governor-general.
CYPRUS AS A ROMAN PROVINCE
Cyprus was annexed by the Roman Republic in 58 bc and, along with Cilicia on the coast of Anatolia, was made into a Roman province. One of its first proconsuls was the orator and writer Cicero. Cyprus was briefly ceded to Cleopatra VII of Egypt by Julius Caesar, and this status was confirmed by Mark Antony, but, after the victory of Caesar’s heir, Octavian (subsequently the emperor Augustus), over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at Actium in 31 bc, it became a Roman possession again. Cyprus was originally administered as part of the “imperial” province of Syria but became a separate “senatorial” province in 22 bc. Its governors resumed the old republican title of proconsul, although there is evidence that Augustus did influence the Senate’s choice. For the next 600 years, Cyprus enjoyed peace, disturbed only by occasional earthquakes and epidemics and by a Jewish uprising suppressed by a lieutenant of the future emperor Hadrian in ad 116. Many large public buildings were erected, among them a gymnasium and theatre at Salamis, a theatre at Kourion, and the governor’s palace at Paphos.
EARLY CHRISTIANITY
One of the most important events in the Roman period was the introduction of Christianity to Cyprus. The apostle Paul, accompanied by Barnabas (later St. Barnabas), a native of the Cypriot Jewish community, preached there about ad 45 and converted the proconsul, Sergius Paulus. By the time of Constantine I the Great, Christians were numerous on the island and may have constituted a majority of the population.
BYZANTINE EMPIRE
After the division of the Roman Empire in 395, Cyprus remained subject to the Eastern, or Byzantine, Empire at Constantinople, being part of the diocese of the Orient governed from Antioch. In ecclesiastical matters, however, the Church of Cyprus was autocephalous—i.e., independent of the Patriarchate of Antioch—having been given that privilege in 488 by the emperor Zeno. The archbishop received the rights, still valued and practiced today, to carry a sceptre instead of a crosier and to sign his name in purple ink, the imperial colour.
There was a break in direct rule from Constantinople in 688 when Justinian II and the caliph ʿAbd al-Malik signed an unusual treaty neutralizing the island, which had been subject to Arab raids. For almost 300 years Cyprus was a kind of condominium (joint dominion) of the Byzantine Empire and the Caliphate, and, although the treaty was frequently violated by both sides, the arrangement lasted until 965, when the emperor Nicephorus II Phocas gained Cyprus completely for the Byzantines. The period that followed was one of modest prosperity.
fresco painting: Byzantine frescoes in Asinou Church, Nikitari, Cyprus [Credit: unbekannter Maler A.D. 1106]A remarkable mosaic of the 6th century, at Kiti, is the best example of Eastern Roman art of that date, comparable to works at Ravenna, Italy. Another equally remarkable mosaic of roughly the same date, at Lythrangomi, was destroyed in 1974. Wall paintings demonstrate close contact with Constantinople; those at Asinou, in particular, are noteworthy as being the earliest of an unparalleled series of mural paintings showing successive developments of Byzantine art.
About 1185 a Byzantine governor of Cyprus, Isaac Comnenus, rebelled and proclaimed himself emperor. Isaac resisted attacks from the Byzantine emperors Andronicus I Comnenus and Isaac II Angelus, but in 1191, on engaging in hostilities with an English Crusader fleet under King Richard I (the Lion-Heart), he was defeated and imprisoned. The island was seized by Richard, from whom it was acquired by the Crusading order of the Knights Templar; because they were unable to pay his price, he took it back and sold it to Guy of Lusignan, the dispossessed king of Jerusalem.
THE LUSIGNAN KINGDOM AND GENOESE AND VENETIAN RULE Guy, a Frenchman who called himself lord of Cyprus, invited families that had lost their lands in Palestine after the fall of Jerusalem to the Muslims under Saladin to settle in Cyprus and thereby laid the basis for a feudal monarchy that survived to the end of the Middle Ages. His brother and successor, Amalric, obtained the title of king from the Holy Roman emperor Henry VI. The earliest kings of the Lusignan dynasty were involved in the affairs of the small territory still left to the kingdom of Jerusalem, and this commitment drained the resources of Cyprus until the kingdom collapsed in 1291 with the fall of Acre. Over the next hundred years, Cyprus gained a reputation in Europe for having immense riches, especially among its nobles and Famagustan merchants. Famagusta’s wealth derived from its position as the last entrepôt for European trade adjacent to the Levant.
The kings of Cyprus had kept alive the Crusading idea, and the island remained a base for counterattacks against the Muslims. In 1361 the Cypriot king Peter I devoted himself to organizing a Crusade; he captured Adalia (Antalya) on the Cilician coast of Anatolia, and in 1365, after having collected money and mercenaries in western Europe, he seized and sacked Alexandria. He was not able to maintain the conquest, however, and was soon forced to abandon Alexandria. At his son’s accession the rivalry between Genoa and Venice over control of Cyprus’s valuable trade resulted in Genoa’s taking possession of Famagusta and holding on to it for nearly a century, which thus led to a rapid decline in the island’s prosperity. In 1426 an expedition from Egypt raided and overran the island, which from then on paid tribute to Cairo. The last Lusignan king, James II, seized the throne with the help of an Egyptian force and in 1464 expelled the Genoese from Famagusta. He married a Venetian noblewoman, Caterina Cornaro, and, on his death (which was followed by that of his posthumous son), she succeeded him as the last monarch of Cyprus. During her reign she was under strong Venetian pressure and was eventually persuaded to cede Cyprus to the Republic of Venice. It remained a Venetian possession for 82 years, until its capture by the Ottomans.
OTTOMAN RULE
A Turkish invading force landed in Cyprus in 1570 and seized Nicosia; the following year Famagusta fell after a long siege, which ushered in the beginning of more than three centuries of Ottoman rule. The Latin church was suppressed and the Orthodox hierarchy restored; after feudal tenure was abolished, the Greek peasantry acquired inalienable and hereditary rights to land. Taxes were at first reduced but later greatly increased and arbitrarily raised. In the 18th century the Orthodox archbishop was made responsible for tax collection.
Thousands of Muslims were settled on the island immediately following the Ottoman conquest. To the sultans Cyprus was an unimportant province; its governors were indolent, inefficient, somewhat oppressive, and corrupt. There were Turkish uprisings in 1764 and 1833, and in 1821 the Orthodox archbishop was hanged on suspicion of sympathy with the rebels in mainland Greece. The sultanate’s various imperial proclamations in the 19th century promising reform had no effect in Cyprus, where local opposition blocked them.
BRITISH RULE
The Cyprus Convention of 1878 between Britain and Turkey provided that Cyprus, while remaining under Turkish sovereignty, should be administered by the British government. Britain’s aim in occupying Cyprus was to secure a base in the eastern Mediterranean for possible operations in the Caucasus or Mesopotamia as part of the British guarantee to secure the sultan’s Asian possessions from Russia. In 1914, when Britain and Turkey became adversaries during World War I, the former annexed the island; Turkey recognized this under the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923. Two years later Cyprus was officially declared a crown colony.
British occupation was initially welcomed by the Greek population, which from the start expected the British to transfer Cyprus to Greece. The Greek Cypriots’ demand for enosis (union with Greece) was opposed by Turkish Cypriots, constituting a major division in the island’s politics; a string of almost annual petitions demanding enosis were matched by counterpetitions and demonstrations from the Turkish Cypriots. Britain had made an offer to transfer the island in 1915, on condition that Greece fulfill its treaty obligations toward Serbia when that country was attacked by Bulgaria; the Greek government refused it, and the offer was not renewed. In 1931 the demand for enosis led to riots in Nicosia.
Cyprus was untouched by World War II, apart from a few air raids. In 1947 the governor, in accordance with the British Labour Party’s declaration on colonial policy, published proposals for greater self-government. They were rejected in favour of the slogan “enosis and only enosis.” In 1955 Lieutenant Colonel Georgios Grivas (known as Dighenis), a Cypriot who had served as an officer in the Greek army, began a concerted campaign for enosis. His National Organization of Cypriot Struggle (Ethnikí Orgánosis Kipriakoú Agónos; EOKA) bombed public buildings and attacked and killed both Greek Cypriot and British opponents of enosis. British jurist Lord Radcliffe, among others, suggested self-government in 1956, but all of the proposals were rejected, and the attacks continued. Archbishop Makarios III, who as ethnarch considered it his duty to champion the national aspirations of the Greek Cypriots, was deported to the Seychelles. He was released from exile in March 1957 and soon made his headquarters in Athens. By that time the operations of EOKA had been reduced, but on the other hand the Turkish Cypriot minority, led by Fazıl Küçük, expressed alarm and demanded either retrocession to Turkey or partition. Public opinion in Greece and Turkey rallied in support of the two communities, respectively; riots ensued, and Greek residents were expelled from Turkey. Despite mediation by the United Nations, the two sides reached no solution.
The Greek and Turkish governments took a decisive step in February 1959, when they reached an agreement in Zürich. Later that same month, at a conference in London, the British government and representatives of the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities accepted the Greek-Turkish compromise. In 1960 treaties that made Cyprus an independent republic, with Britain retaining sovereignty over military bases at Akrotiri and Dhekélia, were ratified in Nicosia. According to the terms of the treaties, the new republic would not participate in a political or economic union with any other state, nor would it be subject to partition. Greece, Turkey, and Britain guaranteed the independence, integrity, and security of the republic, and Greece and Turkey agreed to respect the integrity of the areas remaining under British sovereignty. In December 1959 Makarios was elected president and Küçük vice president, both of whom could exercise a veto in matters relating to security, defense, and foreign affairs. Turkish Cypriots, who made up less than one-fifth of the population, were to represent three-tenths of the civil service and two-fifths of the army and to elect three-tenths of the House of Representatives, and a joint Greek and Turkish military headquarters was also to be established.
The Republic of Cyprus The first general election occurred in July 1960. Of the 35 seats allotted to the Greek Cypriots, 30 were won by supporters of Makarios and 5 were allotted to the communist-led Progressive Party of the Working People (AKEL). All 15 Turkish Cypriot seats were won by supporters of Küçük. Cyprus became a republic on August 16, 1960, and was admitted as a member of the UN. The British government agreed to provide financial assistance over a period of five years, and Cyprus gained membership in the Commonwealth in March 1961.
United Nations Peacekeeping Forces [Credit: J. Fred MacDonald & Associates]Despite these arrangements, the long-standing conflict between the Greek Cypriot majority and the Turkish Cypriot minority intensified following independence. The difficulties the government encountered in implementing some of the complicated provisions of the constitution, particularly regarding local government and finance, led Makarios to propose 13 amendments to Küçük in late 1963. These were rejected by the Turkish government and the Turkish Cypriots, and fighting broke out between the two Cypriot communities. As a result, the area controlled by the Turkish Cypriots was reduced to a few enclaves, and Nicosia was divided by a cease-fire line—known as the Green Line—policed by British troops. In March 1964 the UN Security Council agreed to send to Cyprus a multinational peacekeeping force, the mandate of which was extended repeatedly as the conflict continued. In 1964 the Turkish air force intervened after intensified fighting broke out in the northwest. Contingents of troops and officers from Greece and Turkey were taken into the island clandestinely to command and train the forces raised by the two communities. Grivas, who had been promoted to lieutenant general in the Greek army, returned from Greece to command the Greek Cypriot National Guard. In 1967 an incident in the southeast led to a Turkish ultimatum to Greece, backed by the threat of invasion. The military junta then ruling Greece complied by withdrawing the mainland contingents and General Grivas. An uneasy peace ensued, but intercommunal talks failed to produce a solution.
Makarios was reelected president in 1968 by an overwhelming majority and won again in 1973. Although he had originally been a leader in the campaign for enosis, many Greek Cypriots and mainland Greeks believed that, by the time he became president, he was content with Cyprus’s independence. Angered, dissidents tried to assassinate Makarios in 1970 and 1973, and in 1973 he was denounced by the three suffragan bishops who were ecclesiastically subordinate to him. Meanwhile, Grivas had returned secretly to Cyprus in 1971 to resume the campaign for enosis; he died in Limassol in 1974.
ESTABLISHMENT OF AN INDEPENDENT TURKISH STATE
Cyprus: Greek- and Turkish-controlled areas [Credit: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]On July 15, 1974, a detachment of the National Guard, led by officers from mainland Greece, launched a coup to assassinate Makarios and establish enosis. They demolished the presidential palace, but Makarios escaped. A former EOKA member, Nikos Sampson, was proclaimed president of Cyprus. Five days later Turkish forces landed at Kyrenia to overthrow Sampson’s government. They were met by vigorous resistance, but the Turks were successful in establishing a bridgehead around Kyrenia and linking it with the Turkish sector of Nicosia. On July 23 Greece’s junta fell, and a democratic government under Konstantinos Karamanlis took power. At the same time, Sampson was replaced in Cyprus by Glafcos Clerides, who as president of the House of Representatives automatically succeeded the head of state in the latter’s absence. As required by treaty, the three guarantor powers—Britain, Greece, and Turkey—met for discussions in Geneva, but the Turkish advance continued until mid-August. By that time Turkey controlled roughly the northern third of the island. In December Makarios returned and resumed the presidency, and a few months later Turkish leaders proclaimed a Turkish Federated State of Cyprus under Rauf Denktash as president. Since that time the boundary between the two sectors has unofficially been known as “the Attila Line,” named for the Turkish army’s battle plan.
In May 1983 Denktash broke off all intercommunal talks, and in November he proclaimed the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC); the republic’s independence was recognized only by Turkey. The UN Security Council condemned the move and repeated its demand, first made in 1974, that all foreign troops be withdrawn from the Republic of Cyprus. Renewed UN peace-proposal efforts in 1984 and 1985 were unsuccessful, and in May 1985 a constitution for the TRNC was approved by referendum.
THE FAILURE OF INTERCOMMUNAL TALKS
Negotiations between Clerides and Denktash, representing the Greek and Turkish Cypriots, respectively, had begun in 1968. They continued inconclusively until 1974, the Turks demanding and the Greeks rejecting the proposal for a bizonal federation with a weak central government. In February 1975 the Turkish Cypriots proclaimed the Turkish-occupied area the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus (a body calling itself the Provisional Cyprus-Turkish Administration had been in existence among Turkish Cypriots since 1967); Denktash announced that their purpose was not independence but federation. Talks were resumed in Vienna in 1975 and 1976 under UN auspices, and in early 1977 Makarios and Denktash agreed on acceptable guidelines for a bizonal federation.
In August 1977 Makarios died, and Spyros Kyprianou, president of the House of Representatives, became acting president of the republic; he returned unopposed to that office for a five-year term in January 1978 and was reelected in 1983; Turkish Cypriots took no part in the 1983 election.
Kyprianou lost his bid for a third term in 1988 to an independent candidate, George Vassiliou. He in turn lost by a narrow margin in 1993 to Clerides, a rightist, who was reelected in 1998. At first Clerides showed no willingness to deal with the Turkish Cypriot leader Denktash, but the two eventually met in New York City under UN auspices. The government of the Republic of Cyprus (composed solely of Greek Cypriots) began applying for membership to the European Union (EU) in 1990, though its admittance was repeatedly blocked by Turkey and its supporters.
In late 2002 the EU offered Cyprus membership in its organization on the condition that reunification talks conclude by March 2003 (barring reunification, membership would go to the Greek Cypriot portion of the country only). Just weeks before the March deadline, Tassos Papadopoulos defeated Clerides and assumed the presidency of the Republic of Cyprus, but no agreement was reached. The following month TRNC leaders relaxed restrictions along the Green Line that divided the island, and, for the first time in some 30 years, Cypriots moved with relative freedom throughout the country. In 2004 Turkish Cypriots voted to accept a UN-backed reunification plan, while the Greek Cypriot community—led by Papadopoulos—overwhelmingly rejected the plan; as a result, Greek Cyprus alone was admitted to the EU in May 2004. Although the TRNC remained unrecognized, in the wake of the TRNC’s affirmative vote in the 2004 ballot, the EU expressed interest in reducing its isolation through measures such as aid and direct trade. In spite of this commitment, however, such measures were not immediately forthcoming.
In early 2008 Papadopoulos was narrowly defeated in the first round of voting during the country’s presidential elections, a move thought to signal declining support by Greek Cypriots for the country’s continued division. Dimitris Christofias, leader of Cyprus’s communist party and an advocate of renewed unification efforts, was elected to the presidency shortly thereafter. Soon after his election, Christofias reached an agreement with Mehmet Ali Talat, the leader of the TRNC, to open a crossing at Ledra Street in the divided capital of Nicosia. The division of Ledra Street, split since 1964, had for many come to symbolize the broader partition of the island. Unification talks between Talat and Christofias were under way in later months, although efforts appeared to come under threat in April 2010 with the defeat of Talat and the election of Derviş Eroğlu to the TRNC presidency. However, Eroğlu, who had favoured independence for northern Cyprus over unification, insisted that negotiations would continue under his leadership. In legislative elections in May 2011, gains by the opposition Democratic Rally and a record number of abstentions were interpreted by many as a sign of voter dissatisfaction with the progress of reunification talks.
Cyprus became entangled in the euro-zone debt crisis in early 2011 when the Cypriot banks’ large holdings of Greek government bonds made it impossible for Cyprus to borrow money from international markets. To control rising budget deficits, the Cypriot government enacted a package of austerity measures that included pay freezes for public-sector workers and cuts in social spending. After an EU-sanctioned restructuring of Greek sovereign debt in June 2012 inflicted huge losses on two of Cyprus’s largest banks, Cyprus requested a bailout from the EU and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). However, negotiations over the terms proceeded slowly, with Christofias unwilling to enact the bank reforms and privatizations requested by the EU and IMF.
Presidential elections in February 2013 were dominated by the financial crisis and the bailout. Nicos Anastasiades, the centre-right candidate, pledged to seek a quick agreement with the EU and IMF, whereas his main rival, Stavros Malas, also favoured the bailout but expressed greater reservations about accepting austerity measures. Anastasiades was elected on February 24 with 57.5 percent of the vote. In his victory speech, Anastasiades affirmed that finalizing a bailout agreement would be his first priority as president.
In March Cyprus agreed to terms for a bailout package that included €10 billion (about $13 billion) in loans from the EU and the IMF and required an estimated contribution of €7 billion (about $9 billion) from Cyprus, to be raised by restructuring the Cypriot banking sector, raising corporate taxes, and selling gold reserves. The total amount of Cyprus’s contribution to the bailout increased to €13 billion (about $17 billion) in April.
Disclaimer
This is not the official site of this country. Most of the information in this site were taken from the U.S. Department of State, The Central Intelligence Agency, The United Nations, [1],[2], [3], [4], [5],[6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14],[15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24],[25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30],[31], [32], [33], [34], and the [35].
Other sources of information will be mentioned as they are posted.