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Difference between revisions of "Estonia"
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Despite allegations of corruption and abuse of power by some top officials, by the end of the 1990s Estonia had developed a stable democracy. Although affected by the Russian financial crisis of 1998, Estonia’s economy was fairly robust throughout much of the late 1990s, and it strengthened even more in the opening years of the 21st century. In 2006 Toomas Hendrik Ilves became president. Ruled from 2005 to 2014 by a coalition led by the Estonian Reform Party and Prime Minister Andrus Ansip, the government responded to the challenges of the European financial crisis with an austerity program that kept the country’s economy strong enough for Estonia to join the euro zone in 2011. Ansip, his personal popularity slipping, stepped down in February 2014. He was succeeded as prime minister by Taavi Rõivas, who formed a coalition government with the centre-left Social Democratic Party. In foreign affairs, the country sought to improve its often tense relations with Russia and reoriented itself toward the West. In 1999 Estonia joined the World Trade Organization (WTO), and in 2004 it became a full member of both the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the European Union (EU). | Despite allegations of corruption and abuse of power by some top officials, by the end of the 1990s Estonia had developed a stable democracy. Although affected by the Russian financial crisis of 1998, Estonia’s economy was fairly robust throughout much of the late 1990s, and it strengthened even more in the opening years of the 21st century. In 2006 Toomas Hendrik Ilves became president. Ruled from 2005 to 2014 by a coalition led by the Estonian Reform Party and Prime Minister Andrus Ansip, the government responded to the challenges of the European financial crisis with an austerity program that kept the country’s economy strong enough for Estonia to join the euro zone in 2011. Ansip, his personal popularity slipping, stepped down in February 2014. He was succeeded as prime minister by Taavi Rõivas, who formed a coalition government with the centre-left Social Democratic Party. In foreign affairs, the country sought to improve its often tense relations with Russia and reoriented itself toward the West. In 1999 Estonia joined the World Trade Organization (WTO), and in 2004 it became a full member of both the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the European Union (EU). | ||
==Estonian literature== | |||
Estonian literature, body of writings in the Estonian language. The consecutive domination of Estonia from the 13th century to 1918 by Germany, Sweden, and Russia resulted in few early literary works in the vernacular. Writings in Estonian became significant only in the 19th century. Moreover, many writers went into exile in World War II, which led to a considerable output of postwar exile literature. | |||
Early written Estonian is strongly Germanic, and the first known book in Estonian is a translation of the Lutheran catechism (1535). The New Testament was translated into southern Estonian in 1686 (northern Estonian, 1715); in his translation of the Bible (1739), Anton Thor Helle united the two dialects based on northern Estonian. | |||
The strongest genre of Estonian literature is lyric poetry, owing to the influence of the folk poetry that flowered from the 14th century to the 17th. Though it includes variants of Finnish epic themes, it is more lyrical than Finnish folk poetry. More than a million pages of folk poems of several ethnic groups are preserved in the national archives at Tartu; some are published in Vana kannel, 3 vol. (1875–1938), and Setukeste laulud, 3 vol. (1904–07; “Songs of the Setus,” the peoples of southeastern Estonia). As in Finnish folk poetry, the staple metre of Estonian is the trochaic four-foot line; assonance, alliteration, repetition, and parallelism predominate. | |||
Written literature began in the so-called Estophile period (c. 1750–1840) with moral tales and manuals written by Balto-German enthusiasts for the native language and culture. The philological journal Beiträge zur Genauern Kenntniss der ehstnischen Sprache (“Contributions to a Better Understanding of the Estonian Language”) contained examples of folk poetry and essays, including work by the first native Estonian poet, Kristjan Jaak Peterson. More significant for literature was an epic, Kalevipoeg (1857–61; “The Son of Kalevi [or Kalev],” translated as Kalevipoeg: An Ancient Estonian Tale) that was part authentic tradition and part a creation of F.R. Kreutzwald, for this inspired the Romantic nationalistic movement soon to emerge. Popular patriotic Romantics were the poets Lydia Koidula and Anna Haava, and the first novelist was Juhan Sommer, whose book Luige Laus appeared in 1843. The first Estonian historical novel was Eduard Bornhöhe’s Tasuja (1880; “The Avenger”). Jakob Pärn’s Oma tuba, oma luba (“Own House, Own Master”) approached the realistic style fully developed in the later work of Juhan Liiv. | |||
The realism epitomized in Liiv’s writings held sway from 1890 to 1906. It was superseded by the Neoromantic Young Estonia group, whose leader, a poet, Gustav Suits, devised the slogan “More European culture! Be Estonians but remain Europeans!” For Suits and his followers this meant greater attention to form. With the Russian Revolution of 1917 emerged the Siuru group (named after a bird in Finno-Ugrian mythology). These Neoromantic poets reacted against Suits’s emphasis on formalism. Their emotional intensity was well-illustrated by Henrik Visnapuu, who, with Marie Under, developed the lyrical potential of Estonian to the full. By the 1930s a renewal of realism brought poetry closer to life, but the only outstanding poetry of this revival was descriptions of modern urban life in the work of Juhan Sütiste (Schütz). The Arbujad group (which also took its name from a word with origins in mythology) of the mid-1930s, on the other hand, stressed intellectual and aesthetic aspects of literature. Leading poets were Betti Alver, whose skillful use of symbolic imagery was shown in Tolm ja tuli (1936; “Dust and Fire”); Heiti Talvik, who in Kohtupäev (1937; “Doomsday”) predicted the coming holocaust; Uku Masing, a religious mystical poet; and Bernard Kangro, later the leading lyrical poet in exile. | |||
After World War II more than half of Estonia’s writers went into exile, and their poetry reflected either pessimism, like Kangro, or longing for Estonia, as in Visnapuu’s exile poetry. Gradually a new generation of ironic poets emerged, best-exemplified by Kalju Lepik, experimental author of Kollased nōmmed (1965; “Yellow Heaths”); a skeptical poet, Arno Vihalemm, whose work was spiced with self-irony; and the author of the epic Peetri kiriku kellad (“The Bells of St. Peter’s”), Ivar Grünthal. In Estonia little poetry appeared under Stalin’s Socialist Realism, but new poets, adopting Western styles, appeared in the 1960s. Among these were Jaan Kross, Ellen Niit, Ain Kaalep, and Mats Traat. | |||
Prose writing was equally influenced by movements current in Europe. The realism of the beginning of the century was exemplified in the social criticism of Liiv’s Kümme lugu (1893; “Ten Tales”) and in Ernst Peterson’s criticism of social injustice, Boils (1899–1901). An outstanding realist novelist was Eduard Vilde, who wrote a historical trilogy attacking the Balto-Germanic feudal system and in Mäeküla piimamees (1916; “The Dairyman of Mäeküla”) again treated the relationship between landowner and serf. Friedebert Tuglas, who introduced Impressionism and Symbolism, belonged to Young Estonia, while August Gailit was a leading Siuru prose writer. Among the Neoromantics who became realists were Anton Tammsaare, who wrote an ethico-psychological chronicle, Tōde ja ōigus (1926–33; “Truth and Right”), and Albert Kivikas, whose Nimed marmortahvlil (1936; “Names on the Marble Tablet”) was about the war of liberation. | |||
Novelists in exile found inspiration in the very fact of their exile. Two principal themes were wartime experiences and the problem of adapting to new environments. Among writers in exile were Gailit, Mälk, Kivikas, Ristikivi, Pedro Krusten, Karl Rumor, Juhan Jaik, Evald Mänd, and Valev Uibopuu. New writers included a critic, essayist, and dramatist, Arvo Mägi, and the novelists Ilmar Talve, Ilmar Jaks, Helga Nõu, and Elin Toona. Of these, the last three showed an increasing internationalism in their work. In Estonia postwar fiction decayed in the way poetry did. The deadening effect of Socialist Realism gradually gave way to greater subtlety, and younger novelists, such as Arvo Valton, Enn Vetemaa, and Mati Unt, were able to examine some of the problems of Communism and begin stylistic experimentation. | |||
Dramatic works were few, but two early playwrights stood out: August Kittsberg, author of both comedies and serious plays, and Hugo Raudsepp, whose realistic and symbolical plays were social satires. | |||
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