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Laos
Vientiane • Pakxe • Savannakhet • Louangphabang • Xam Nua • Muang Phonsavan • Phonsavan • Thakhek • Vangviang • Muang Xay • Muang Pakxan • Ban Houakhoua • Khong • Sainyabuli • Phongsali • Champasak • Ban Houayxay • Muang Phon-Hong • Salavan • Lamam • Attapu • Louang Namtha •
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THE LAOS COAT OF ARMS | |||
Location of Laos within the continent of Asia | |||
Map of Laos | |||
Flag Description of Laos:The Laos flag was officially adopted on December 2, 1975. The white circle on the blue field is said to represent the moon shining over the Mekong River. The blue stripe represents wealth, and the red represents the blood shed during the internal struggle for freedom. | |||
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Official name Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxôn Lao (Lao People’s Democratic Republic)
Form of government unitary single-party people’s republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [132])
Head of state President: Choummaly Sayasone
Head of government Prime Minister: Thongsing Thammavong
Capital Vientiane (Viangchan)
Official language Lao
Official religion none
Monetary unit kip (KN)
Population (2013 est.) 6,651,000COLLAPSE
Total area (sq mi) 91,429
Total area (sq km) 236,800
Urban-rural population
- Urban: (2011) 34.3%
- Rural: (2011) 65.7%
Life expectancy at birth
- Male: (2009) 59.8 years
- Female: (2009) 63.5 years
Literacy: percentage of population age 15 and over literate
- Male: (2005) 82.5%
"Female: (2005) 63.2%
GNI per capita (U.S.$) (2012) 1,260
Official name Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxôn Lao (Lao People’s Democratic Republic)
Form of government unitary single-party people’s republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [132])
Head of state President: Choummaly Sayasone
Head of government Prime Minister: Thongsing Thammavong
Capital Vientiane (Viangchan)
Official language Lao
Official religion none
Monetary unit kip (KN)
Population (2013 est.) 6,651,000COLLAPSE
Total area (sq mi) 91,429
Total area (sq km) 236,800
Urban-rural population
- Urban: (2011) 34.3%
- Rural: (2011) 65.7%
Life expectancy at birth
- Male: (2009) 59.8 years
- Female: (2009) 63.5 years
Literacy: percentage of population age 15 and over literate
- Male: (2005) 82.5%
- Female: (2005) 63.2%
GNI per capita (U.S.$) (2012) 1,260
Background of Laos
Laos, landlocked country of northeast-central mainland Southeast Asia. It consists of an irregularly round portion in the north that narrows into a peninsula-like region stretching to the southeast. Overall, the country extends about 650 miles (1,050 km) from northwest to southeast. The capital is Vientiane (Lao: Viangchan), located on the Mekong River in the northern portion of the country.
The geologically diverse landscape of Laos, with its forested mountains, upland plateaus and lowland plains, supports an equally diverse population that is united largely through agriculture, particularly the cultivation of rice. Interactions—sometimes hostile, sometimes hospitable—with the neighbouring Khmer (Cambodian), Siamese (Thai), and Myanmar (Burmese) kingdoms between the 5th and the mid-19th century indirectly imbued Laos with elements of Indian culture, including Buddhism, the religion now practiced by most of the population. Both Buddhist and Hindu lores have shaped the visual, performing, and literary arts of the country. Many of the indigenous and minority peoples of the remote highland slopes and mountainous regions, however, have maintained their own idiosyncratic ritual and artistic traditions.
Colonization by the French from the late 19th to the mid-20th century infused Laos with a European cultural element, which intensified throughout the country’s embroilment in World War II and the Indochina wars, as well as a civil war of its own in the second half of the 20th century. Guided by Marxist-Leninist ideology, Laos emerged from the turmoil in 1975 as a communist country. Economic reforms of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, including the development of tourism, have strengthened Laos’s economy, gradually shrinking the country’s debt and diminishing its dependence on international aid.
Land of Laos
The Land
Laos is bounded to the north by China, to the northeast and east by Vietnam, to the south by Cambodia, to the west by Thailand, and to the northwest by Myanmar (Burma).
Relief
Dominating the landscape of Laos are its inhospitable forest-covered mountains, which in the north rise to a maximum elevation of 9,245 feet (2,818 metres) above sea level at Mount Bia and everywhere constitute an impediment to travel. The principal range lies along a northwest-southeast axis and forms part of the Annamese Cordillera (Chaîne Annamitique), but secondary ranges abound. On the Xiangkhoang Plateau in north-central Laos, the Plain of Jars (Thông Haihin; the name derived from large prehistoric stone jars discovered there) consists of extensive rolling grasslands rather than a true plain and provides a hub of communications. The karst landscapes of the central provinces of Bolikhamxay and Khammouan contain caverns and severely eroded limestone pinnacles. In the south the Bolovens Plateau, at an elevation of about 3,600 feet (1,100 metres), is covered by open woodland and has generally fertile soil. The only extensive lowlands lie along the eastern bank of the Mekong River.
Drainage
The general slope of the land in Laos is downhill from east to west, and all the major rivers—the Tha, Beng, Ou, Ngum, Kading, Bangfai, Banghiang, and Kong—are tributaries of the Mekong (Mènam Khong). The Mekong flows generally southeast and south along and through western Laos and forms its boundary with Myanmar and most of the border with Thailand. The course of the river itself is severely constricted by gorges in northern Laos, but, by the time it reaches Vientiane, its valley broadens and exposes wide areas to flooding when the river breaches its banks, as it did most notably in August 1966. A few rivers in eastern Laos flow eastward through gaps in the Annamese Cordillera to reach the Gulf of Tonkin; the most important of these is the Ma River, which rises in the northeast, just inside the Vietnam border.
Soils
Soils in the floodplains are formed from alluvium deposited by rivers and are either sandy or sandy clay with light colours or sandy with gray or yellow colours; chemically, these are neutral to slightly acidic. Upland soils derived from crystalline, granitic, schistose, or sandstone parent rocks generally are more acidic and much less fertile. Southern Laos contains areas of laterite (leached and iron-bearing) soils, as well as basaltic soils on the Bolovens Plateau.
Climate
Laos has the typical tropical monsoon (wet-dry) climate of the region, though the mountains provide some variations in temperature. During the rainy season (May to October), the winds of the southwest monsoon deposit an average rainfall of 50 to 90 inches (1,300 to 2,300 mm), with totals reaching some 160 inches (4,100 mm) on the Bolovens Plateau. The dry season (November to April) is dominated by the northeast monsoon. Minimum temperatures average between 60 and 70 °F (16 and 21 °C) in the cool months of December through February, increasing to highs of more than 90 °F (32 °C) in March and April, just before the start of the rains. In the wet season the average temperature is 80 °F (27 °C).
Plant and animal life
Laos has tropical rainforests of broad-leaved evergreens in the north and monsoon forests of mixed evergreens and deciduous trees in the south. In the monsoon forest areas the ground is covered with tall, coarse grass called tranh; the trees are mostly secondary growth, with an abundance of bamboo, scrub, and wild banana. Laos is also home to hundreds of species of orchids and palms.
The forests and fields support a wealth of wildlife, including nearly 200 species of mammals, about the same number of reptiles and amphibians, and some 700 varieties of birds. Common mammals include gaurs (wild oxen), deer, bears, and monkeys. Elephants, rhinoceroses, and tigers, as well as several types of wild oxen, monkeys, and gibbons, are among the country’s endangered mammals. Geckoes, snakes, skinks, and frogs are abundant; several types of turtles are threatened. The canopy and floor of the forest are inhabited by countless warblers, babblers, woodpeckers, and thrushes, as well as an array of larger raptors. Numerous water birds live in the lowlands. Several dozen species of Laos’s birds are threatened, including most hornbills, ibises, and storks.
Demography of Laos
The People
- Ethnic groups and languages
Laos is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country. The official language of Laos is Lao, although various foreign languages have often been used by the elite. French was once the language of the Lao upper classes and of the cities, but by the 1970s English had begun to displace it. Under the leadership of the Lao People’s Revolutionary Party, Vietnamese became the third language of the elite.
Before the Indochina wars, sources commonly identified more than 60 different population groups; after the wars, which displaced (or killed) a large segment of the population, that number had been significantly reduced, with some communities amounting to only a few hundred persons. By the late 20th century the various peoples of Laos were officially grouped primarily by language and location into one of three categories: Lao Loum (“Lowland Lao”), Lao Theung (“Lao of the Mountain Slopes”), and Lao Soung (“Lao of the Mountain Tops”). These groupings have simplified administration, and even individuals in the remotest villages now typically identify themselves to visitors with this nomenclature. The scheme does not, however, reflect the intricacy of the country’s cultural and linguistic composition. For example, the language spoken by the Lao of Vientiane, a Lao Loum group, bears closer resemblance to that spoken by the Thai across the river than to languages spoken by some other Lao Loum peoples such as the Tai Dam (Black Tai; so named for their black clothing) in the northeast. Beyond the government’s three Lao groupings are communities of Chinese and Vietnamese, both of which are concentrated primarily in the large towns.
The Lao Loum generally live on the banks of the Mekong and its tributaries and in the cities. All speak Tai languages of the Tai-Kadai family. The Lao Loum constitute roughly two-thirds of the population, with the ethnic Lao by far the largest component. Other prominent Lao Loum communities include the Phuan of the northeast, the Lue of the northwest, and the Phu Tai of the south. Also subsumed under the Lao Loum rubric are those peoples who were once classified as Lao Tai, including the Tai Dam and Tai Deng (Red Tai; so named after their red clothing), among others.
Prior to the establishment of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (LPDR) in 1975, the Lao Loum peoples had a distinct pattern of culture and dress. They also had a well-defined social structure, differentiating between royalty and commoners. Members of the elite included only a few outsiders of nonnoble descent. Most of the elite lived in the cities, drawing their incomes from rural land rents or from urban occupations. After 1975 a new elite emerged, representing the victorious leftist forces. Many of that group, however, were of aristocratic origin.
Lao Tai peoples of the Lao Loum group also once had a clear political hierarchy and a stratified social structure. Black Tai tribal organization, for instance, had three levels: the village, which was the smallest unit; the commune, which comprised several villages; and the muong, which embraced multiple communities and villages. Each muong was led by a chao muong, a hereditary ruler and member of the nobility. While communes were also ruled by nobles, villages were headed by commoners selected from the heads of households. The muong were ethnically diverse social and administrative units. Among the Black Tai, for instance, the nobility consisted of two descent groups, the Lo and the Cam, who provided the rulers of the muong. Religious leaders came from two other descent groups, the Luong and the Ka. The Red Tai had a similar social and political structure, with an additional council of five to aid the chao muong. The nobility owned the land and had the right to request service from the commoners.
The Lao Theung peoples are scattered throughout Laos and speak Austroasiatic (Mon-Khmer) languages. They are probably the original inhabitants of the country, having migrated northward in prehistoric times. Unlike the Lao Loum, the Lao Theung had no political or social structure beyond the village. They were led by a village headman, who was their link to the central government, but his role in the village was not clear. Major ethnic groups within the Lao Theung category include the Khmu (Kammu) and Lamet in the north, the Katang and Makong in the center, and the Jru’ (Loven) and Brao (Lave) in the far south. The Lao Theung constitute about one-fourth of the population.
The Lao Soung group includes peoples who have migrated into northern Laos since the early 19th century and speak Hmong-Mien (Miao-Yao) or Tibeto-Burman languages. Among the most prominent of those communities are the Hmong, Mien (also called Man or Yao), Akha (a subgroup of Hani peoples), and Lahu. The Lao Soung account for roughly one-tenth of the population.
Among the Lao Soung, the Hmong maintained a tradition of large-scale social organization with a king and subchiefs, although these figures were of little significance at the village level. The village consisted of several extended families belonging to one or more clans. If all the heads of households were members of a single clan, the head of the clan was the headman of the village. Where several clans resided together in a large village, there were several headmen, one being the nominal head and the link to the government. The headman had real authority in the village and was aided by a council. The Hmong activated their organization beyond the village for military purposes.
- Religion
The predominant religion of Laos is Theravada Buddhism. Buddhism was the state religion of the prerepublic kingdom of Laos, and the organization of the community of monks and novices, the clergy (sangha), paralleled the political hierarchy. Buddhists—largely lowland Lao—account for about half the country’s people. Some two-fifths of the population, primarily the Lao Theung and Lao Soung groups, follow non-Buddhist local religions. Buddhism and local religion are not necessarily mutually exclusive, however; there is both a syncretic practice of and a general tolerance for local religious traditions within the broader Buddhist community.
Similarly, some of the upland peoples, especially those who have migrated from southern China, mix Confucian ideas with Buddhism and local religions. The Vietnamese, who live both in the cities and in the northeastern rural areas, practice a mixture of Mahayana Buddhism and Confucianism.
Other smaller religious communities include Christians, Muslims, and followers of the Bahāʾī faith. Although the country’s constitution provides for freedom of religion in theory, the government restricts this right in practice, particularly with respect to the minority religions. Since some heavy-handed attempts in the aftermath of 1975 to take over the sangha, which was perceived as a rival grassroots organization, and the subsequent flight of many monks abroad, the government has treaded carefully. The regime has patronized a revival of Buddhist culture and merit making and has also tolerated the practice of many unique religious traditions that it earlier had publicly discouraged as “superstitious.”
- Settlement patterns
Laos is predominantly rural and agricultural. The numerous isolated valley communities preserve a variety of traditions, languages, and dialects. Lowland villages usually are located close to rivers and roads that give the people access to itinerant traders as well as to each other. Most of the settlements are laid out around a main street or open area, with farmlands adjacent to the residential areas. Every lowland village, if it can, has a Buddhist temple and supports at least one monk. The temple compound typically includes a public building that serves as a school and a meeting hall. Village leadership is usually divided, the headman overseeing secular matters, the monk having authority in religious ones.
The upland and midland peoples—the Lao Soung and Lao Theung, respectively—are largely organized along clan lines and live in smaller groupings. Most cultivate swiddens (i.e., fields that are cleared and cultivated for a few years before being abandoned and allowed to revert to forest), hunt game, and collect various edible and nonedible forest products. Among some peoples, particularly the Hmong, shifting cultivation has prevented the establishment of permanent villages. Midland peoples living closer to the lowland areas have tended more readily to acquire the languages and cultures of their neighbours and to engage in trade with them; those living at higher elevations remain less obviously acculturated.
Urban life in Laos is limited mainly to the capital, Vientiane, the former royal capital, Louangphrabang, and four or five other large towns. With the exception of Louangphrabang, all are located in the floodplain area near the Mekong River. Their populations are predominantly Lao, with smaller groups of Chinese, Vietnamese, and Indians.
- Demographic trends
The country has remained overwhelmingly rural, with the bulk of the population living in villages ranging from just a few to several hundred households. Laos has the lowest population density of any country of Southeast Asia, and its population is also one of the most youthful. A high birth rate is offset by a high rate of infant mortality, as well as by a life expectancy that is significantly below the world average. About half the people are concentrated in the lowlands, and only about one-fourth are urban dwellers. There has been a considerable out-migration of people from Laos since the mid-1970s, including not only survivors of the Hmong “secret army” from the Vietnam War (1954–75) but also many of the country’s educated and professional elite. Large communities of Lao and Hmong now live in the United States, Australia, and France.
Economy of Laos
The economy of Laos is primarily agricultural and since the late 20th century has remained heavily dependent on foreign aid and investment. The disruption during the civil war period (late 1950s to 1975) and the economic policies of the early years of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic—notably the attempt to collectivize agriculture—resulted in economic stagnation in the country. By 1980, however, the government had begun to pursue more pragmatic development policies, and in 1986 it introduced market-oriented reforms. Since then private and state enterprises have operated side by side, and foreign investment has been encouraged. A number of nongovernmental organizations, including some from the United States, have been assisting the government, mainly in the fields of rural development and public health.
- Agriculture, forestry, and fishing
Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of Laos. In the early 21st century the sector generated nearly half the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) and employed some three-fourths of the population. The expansion of land under cultivation has been impeded, however, largely by the vast quantities of unexploded bombs—dropped mostly by the U.S. military during the Vietnam War—that litter potential farmlands. Consequently, only a small portion of the country’s total arable land area is cultivated. The great majority of Laos’s farmers are engaged in rice agriculture. Lowland farmers generally plant irrigated paddy fields, while upland dwellers cultivate rain-fed swiddens. Frequent floods and droughts cause significant year-to-year fluctuation in agricultural yields. Although such weather calamities affect the lowlands more severely, those regions have been more productive than the uplands, owing largely to accessibility of new technologies, pesticides, fertilizers, more solid infrastructure, and market networks. Many farmers in the uplands practice subsistence agriculture; however, a shift toward market-based production has been gaining momentum, propelled primarily by government modernization initiatives. In years with “normal” harvests, Laos is self-sufficient in rice production.
Principal crops other than rice include sweet potatoes, sugarcane, corn (maize), assorted vegetables and fruits in smaller quantities, and tobacco. Coffee is cultivated mainly on the Bolovens Plateau and is the only crop produced for export in substantial volume. Opium production began decreasing dramatically in the late 20th century as a result of aggressive eradication programs implemented by the government. Although opium poppies are still grown in some hill areas, poppy cultivation for export is illegal.
Roughly two-fifths of Laos is forested, and the country’s forest resources have provided for several important wood-processing industries. Timber extraction, however, has been banned periodically by the government for environmental reasons. Rapid deforestation has been attributed primarily to logging operations and to the cutting of wood for fuel—activities that have been further blamed for the erosion of hillsides, the silting of rivers, and, ultimately, the increased severity of droughts and floods. The government has also viewed swidden farming in the uplands as a major contributor to deforestation and has adopted measures to encourage conversion to sedentary agricultural practices.
Fishing is particularly important for lowland dwellers, and aquaculture has been increasing in the early 21st century. Principal pond-raised fish include tilapia and various types of carp. Raising of livestock—especially pigs, cattle, water buffalo, and chickens—has also been growing in significance.
- Resources and power
Laos has considerable mineral reserves. Tin has been mined commercially since colonial times and has remained a major resource; gypsum has become important since the last decades of the 20th century. Gold mining expanded significantly in the early 21st century, with substantial foreign investment. Foreign companies have also worked the country’s granite and limestone deposits. Other minerals mined in notable quantities include copper and precious stones. Laos is also rich in iron and lead, but these and many other mineral deposits have yet to be exploited systematically. The remote locations of deposits, the lack of a trained labour force, and the vast quantities of unexploded ordnance contaminating the countryside are among the factors that have discouraged foreign investment and hindered exploration.
Although much coal is mined in Laos, the country draws almost all its energy from hydroelectric sources. Dams on the Ngum River north of Vientiane supply the bulk of domestic energy needs. Electricity is also one of Laos’s most valuable exports. A number of other dams, such as those on the Theun River in central Laos, produce electricity primarily for export to neighbouring countries, especially Thailand. Additional hydroelectric projects have been under way, although concern about their environmental impact has slowed the planning process.
- Manufacturing
Although manufacturing has been growing faster than any other sector since the economic reforms of the late 20th century, it still has provided less than one-fourth of Laos’s GDP. Aside from energy production and mining, the country’s main manufacturing activities are food processing (rice milling and beverage production—mostly beer and soft drinks), sawmilling, the production of building materials (e.g., nails and brick), and the manufacture of a variety of light consumer goods (primarily plastic products, tobacco and cigarettes, and detergents). Garment production, largely for export, has been expanding rapidly. Handicrafts are also an important component of Laos’s manufacturing sector.
- Finance
Until the late 1980s the government controlled all banking activities. Since then it has fostered the development of a private banking sector. Foreign investment and joint ventures with foreign companies have been officially encouraged. The central bank, Banque de la RDP Lao, issues the national currency, the kip; regulates and supervises commercial and regional banks; maintains foreign exchange reserves; licenses financial services; and manages the monetary and credit system. A number of commercial banks promote private investment.
During the Asian economic crisis of the late 20th century, the value of the kip declined by more than half in 1998 alone. This, among other factors, led much of the population to remain cautious about depositing money in savings accounts. People have since tended to store their savings in gold, foreign currencies, and, in rural areas, farm animals. Regional disparity in per capita income has been widening.
- Trade
Laos has been a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) trade organization since 1997 and has enjoyed normal trading relations (formerly known as most-favoured-nation) status with the United States since 2004. Laos’s chief exports are garments, electric power, timber and other forest products, coffee, and various metals and minerals. Major imports include foodstuffs, construction and electrical equipment, materials for the garment industry, machinery, and mineral fuels. The country’s main trading partners are Thailand, Vietnam, China, and Singapore. To a lesser extent, Laos engages in trade with Germany, France, and the United Kingdom. Imports have consistently exceeded exports in value, leaving a significant trade deficit; the gap typically has been filled by foreign aid.
- Services
The service sector in Laos, including trade, accounts for roughly one-fourth of GDP. Since the late 1990s the government has been actively promoting tourism, which has been emerging rapidly as an important contributor to the country’s economy, despite being hampered by insufficient accommodations, unreliable transportation, unsafe infrastructure, and intermittent bombings. The great majority of tourists to Laos come from Thailand and Vietnam. Smaller but nonetheless significant numbers come from the United States, China, France, the United Kingdom, and Japan.
- Labour and taxation
Nearly three-fourths of the population of Laos between the ages of 18 and 64 work for a living. However, a considerable portion of this labour force is engaged in subsistence farming and is therefore not formally employed. The working population consists about equally of men and women.
Laos derives the bulk of its revenue from taxes. Excise and turnover taxes (taxes applied to various stages of production) increased significantly in the early 21st century to become the country’s primary sources of tax revenue. Timber royalties, on the other hand, declined sharply.
- Transportation
A major obstacle to the economic and social development of Laos has been its lack of a good transportation system. Rivers and roads are the major avenues of communication, supplemented by air transport. Laos itself has no railway system, but Thailand’s railways funnel goods and passengers to Laos. The Mekong River is the major north-south commercial artery. However, its navigability for international traffic is impeded by the Khone Falls, a series of interlocking falls and cataracts spanning the far southern border of Laos with Cambodia, and by smaller falls between Vientiane and the border with China. Most of the remaining stretches of the Mekong are navigable for at least part of the year. Large barges ply the deeper sections of the rivers between towns, but most of the water traffic is carried in smaller craft.
During French rule a rudimentary network of roads was created. The main artery joined Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City, Viet.) with Louangphrabang, and several lesser roads led eastward through mountain passes into Vietnam. During the Vietnam War, road building and improvement were undertaken by the United States, China, and what was then North Vietnam; the best-known of these works was the Ho Chi Minh Trail, a complex of roads, fords, and ferries in the Annamese Cordillera. Only a small portion of those and other roads have since been paved, and passage even on the main roads is often difficult during the rainy season. Bridges across the Mekong at Vientiane and near Savannakhét have greatly improved transportation between Laos and Thailand. However, many of the country’s villages remain inaccessible to motor vehicles.
Wattay International Airport in Vientiane is the principal airport and the home of Lao Airlines, the country’s commercial carrier. Smaller international airports are located in Louangphrabang and in Champassak province. Several regional facilities offer domestic flights.
Government and Society of Laos
- Constitutional framework
Since its establishment in December 1975, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (LPDR) has been effectively controlled by the communist Lao People’s Revolutionary Party (LPRP). This party, in alliance with the Vietnamese communists, carried out the revolution that ended in its seizure of power and the abolition of the monarchy. Top government positions—beginning with the president, who is head of state, and the prime minister, who is the head of government—are selected from high-ranking party members who constitute a Central Committee with the Politburo at the head.
The constitution of 1991, which declares the party to be the “leading nucleus” of the political system, provides for a National Assembly, the members of which are elected to five-year terms. The National Assembly elects the president and vice president and approves presidential appointments of the prime minister and members of the cabinet (Council of Ministers). The president and ministers serve five-year terms.
- Local government
The country is divided into some 16 provinces, as well as the Vientiane municipality and the Xaisomboun special zone; the provinces are subdivided further into districts and villages. Governors of provinces and the mayor of Vientiane are appointed by the president, and lower-level local administrators, including deputy provincial governors, deputy mayors, and district chiefs, are named by the prime minister. Villages are led by village heads. At each level of local government, there are party committees and administrative committees, often headed by the same individuals. Local administrations have considerable autonomy in economic matters.
- Justice
The judicial system is headed by the People’s Supreme Court, the president of which is elected by the National Assembly on recommendation of its own Standing Committee. Below the People’s Supreme Court are provincial, municipal, district, and military courts. Judges for these courts are also appointed by the Standing Committee of the National Assembly.
- Political process
Laos is a communist country, and the only legal political party is the LPRP. Although the party controls all branches of government, independent candidates have on occasion been elected to the National Assembly. A handful of groups stand in armed opposition to the communist government, some of them associated with particular ethnic communities (e.g., the Hmong); others operate from outside the country. The number of women elected to the National Assembly has been increasing since the 1990s, and, by the early 21st century, women had become a significant minority in the legislature. Laos has universal adult suffrage for all citizens who are at least 18 years old.
- Security
Laos maintains a small, minimally funded military force consisting almost entirely of the Lao People’s Army, with a smaller air unit. Military service is compulsory for men from age 15, with conscription lasting a minimum of 18 months. Internal security measures have been strictly enforced, as the regime fears political opposition linked to a large exile population and sporadic armed resistance within the country. Paramilitary self-defense forces vastly outnumber the army.
- Health and welfare
Medical care in general is inadequate and unevenly distributed in Laos, with most of the health care facilities located in urban areas. Communicable diseases (e.g., influenza), cardiovascular diseases, injuries, accidents, violence, cancers, and respiratory diseases are the major health problems and causes of death. The departure of most of the country’s physicians after 1975 created a serious problem for the new government. In response, the government began to build village infirmaries and dispensaries in most of the provinces and to train medical workers. These village medical workers, often using only traditional medicinal herbs, have continued to provide much of the country’s primary health care.
- Education
In the past the teaching of much cultural lore and reading and writing took place in Buddhist temples and was available only to men. The French introduced European-style education in the early 20th century, and over the next several decades the number of elementary school students reached hundreds of thousands. The LPDR government assumed responsibility for education in 1975 and inaugurated a program to bring primary education to all areas of Laos within a decade. The new regime also launched a major adult literacy campaign in the mid-1980s. Although literacy has increased considerably since that time, it has been difficult to maintain in rural areas where there is limited reading material.
During the early years of the LPDR, the government’s primary concern in education was a political one, with the dissemination of knowledge of the party’s policies being the main aim of the new Laotian curriculum. Reassessment of the curriculum began in the 1980s following the collapse of communist regimes in eastern Europe and the return to Laos of young people who had been sent to those countries for higher education. Textbooks were revised to downplay ideological rhetoric and to increase the relevance of their content to the socioeconomic realities of contemporary Laos. A new curriculum came into operation throughout Laos in 1996.
Since the late 20th century, the educational system of Laos has continued to struggle with underfunding, inadequate teacher training, and insufficient facilities. Nevertheless, the literacy rate has risen substantially, and the number of primary and secondary schools, teachers, and students has increased dramatically. The National University of Laos in Vientiane was established in 1995 through the consolidation of several tertiary institutions and a centre for agriculture; this supplanted the royal government’s former university, which had been disbanded by the communist regime.
Culture Life of Laos
- Cultural milieu
Among the lowland Lao, traditions of Buddhism and the boun (festival)—historically associated with village life but now also practiced in urban areas—guide everyday life. The merit-making ritual of giving alms to monks during their morning rounds, once discouraged by the government, has remained a prominent practice.
Among the upland peoples, traditional rituals also persist, although some groups, such as the Hmong, do not feel the same attachment to the village as a spatial or social unit that the lowland Lao do. To the Hmong the primary foci of social identification are the household, the group of close relatives, and the clan, irrespective of any temporary or even permanent settlement. The Hmong cosmos is inhabited by a wide array of spirits, including medicine spirits, nature spirits, and shamanic spirits. Both social and spiritual life, then, vary markedly between the lowland and highland regions of Laos.
- Daily life and social customs
Most families in Laos are involved in farming. Members of households work the land together, with a division of labour by gender. In wet rice cultivation, men plow and prepare the seedbed, control water flow to the fields, and thresh the crop. Women transplant the seedlings, weed the fields, and carry the sheaves of rice to the threshing place. In upland rice cultivation, men cut and clear the swiddens, while women do the sowing and weeding. Wet rice cultivation begins with the onset of the rains in April or May and ends with the harvest in October and November. In upland areas, fields are burned and cleared at the end of the dry season in February and March, and harvesting takes place in November. Cultivation of secondary crops is interspersed with rice cultivation; gardening on river banks, for example, follows the drop in water level at the end of the dry season.
In addition to strictly agricultural activities, the daily lives of rural people involve a number of other tasks, such as fetching water from wells, hunting for game, and gathering various forest products. Common forest products include small game, birds and eggs, fruit, honey, spices, medicines, resins, latexes, dyes, and wood for fuel and for making charcoal, as well as structural materials such as rattan, bamboo, wooden poles, and various fibres. The important tasks of gathering and processing of forest products are associated with women.
The ethnic Lao ritual of the baci, in which strings are tied around a person’s wrist to preserve good luck, has indeed been elevated in Laos to the place of a national custom. The baci is associated with transitions, namely, giving birth, getting married, entering the monkhood, going away, returning, beginning a new year, and welcoming or bidding farewell to foreign guests. The practice has retained an important place in state ceremonies of all kinds. A prominent ritual among the upland Hmong is the sacrifice of a chicken or pig to the household spirit at the new year.
The Laotian government observes a number of holidays that are generally secular in nature. Among these are New Year’s Day (January 1), Pathet Laos Day (January 6), Lao New Year (April 13–15), Liberation Day (August 23), Freedom from the French Day (October 12), and National Day (December 2). The three-day Lao New Year celebration in Louangphrabang takes place with much pomp and colour. A central feature of this festivity is the parading of the holy relic and palladium of the former kingdom from the Royal Palace Museum to the Wat May temple. For holidays celebrated by particular ethnic groups, leave is usually granted to those concerned, most of whom work in the capital and urban areas. The traditional holidays of the lowland rural regions revolve around the Buddhist temples and the agricultural cycle; these calendars operate beyond the reach of the state.
- The arts
The visual, dramatic, musical, and literary arts of Laos draw primarily from religious and local traditional sources. However, in contemporary times many towns—especially those along the Mekong River—have been exposed to other cultures and traditions, largely through Thai mass media. In the south, Khmer influences on the peoples of Laos are strong; in the north, Myanmar and Thai influences are readily apparent. As elsewhere in Southeast Asia, religious symbols, stories, and themes have been modified and localized. The snake, for example, representations of which adorn religious and royal buildings, symbolizes the benevolent spirit of the water and the protector of the king.
Theravada Buddhism and Hinduism have been major influences on the cultural and intellectual life of Laos. The story of the Buddha and Hindu myths are the subjects of the carvings and sculptures found in all religious places. Dance dramas similarly have drawn many of their themes from ancient Indian epics, such as the Ramayana, that have religious significance. Such dramatic performances have historically marked religious celebrations and important holidays.
The Laotians have a variety of regional and rural art forms, including weaving, basketmaking, wood and ivory carving, silverwork, and goldwork. There are a number of musical instruments that are characteristic of the rural Lao as well as the midland and upland minority communities. The most widely known of such instruments is the khene, a wood-and-bamboo mouth organ that is used by various rural peoples. Other instruments include assorted flutes, plucked and bowed lutes, drums, and cymbals. The country also has a wealth of regional vocal music traditions—most of which are designated by some form of the term khap or lam. Performance of such vocal music often takes the form of a spirited battle of knowledge, wit, and artistry between the sexes. Most music is not written down but is transmitted through oral tradition.
Prior to 1975 Laos had a viable tradition of classical court music that was similar in sound and structure to styles associated with the royal courts of neighbouring Thailand and Cambodia. Instruments of the Lao classical ensemble were generally distinct from those of rural and regional traditions. Among the most prominent melodic instruments of the classical ensemble were tuned circular sets of gongs (khong vong), xylophones (lanat), and a quadruple-reed wind instrument (pi kaeo). Following the establishment of the LPDR, classical music and its practitioners were considered to be antithetical to ideals of the new communist regime. The royal musicians and dancers from Louangphrabang emigrated as refugees and moved to the United States, where they were resettled as a group in Nashville, Tenn.; those from the Natasin School (also called National School of Dramatic Arts) near Vientiane similarly were sent to Des Moines, Iowa; those who remained in Laos retreated to the Laotian countryside. Only since the late 20th century has the classical music tradition begun to resurface as a positive emblem of Lao identity. Regular performances have been reinstated by local musicians at the Royal Palace Museum in Louangphrabang.
Laotian literature is predominantly religious and is linked to the Buddhist tradition. There is also a literary stream that, while secular, is based on themes of the Hindu epic poems; an example of this is the Laotian epic the Sin Xay, written between the mid-16th and the late 17th century. The most popular poems and songs are often satiric.
- Cultural institutions
Vientiane. The That Luang (Grand Stupa), originally built in the 16th century by King Setthatirath, is the site of a great fair held every November. During that time, people stream toward the site by the thousands to pay homage. An image of the stupa has been incorporated into the country’s national crest. A former hotel, built by the French colonial government in the early 20th century, is home to the Lao National Museum. The 16th-century Ho Phakeo temple also houses a museum and serves as a repository for carvings, engravings, and other cultural artifacts of Laos. A popular destination for tourists as well as religious devotees is the 19th-century Sisaket temple, renowned for its wall with thousands of niches, each containing an image of the Buddha. The triumphal Patuxai Arch (completed 1969) in Vientiane commemorates Laotians lost in the battle for independence from the French.
Beyond Vientiane, the Royal Palace in Louangphrabang, built by King Sisavang Vong in the first decade of the 20th century, has been converted into an important cultural museum. The city of Louangphrabang itself has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage site (1995) for its unique blend of Laotian and colonial architecture. The ancient temple complex and Hindu planned landscape in Champassak province were jointly added to the World Heritage list in 2001. An unusual historical site in north-central Laos is the Plain of Jars, so named for the enormous stone jars (perhaps funerary urns), some of them estimated to be nearly 2,000 years old, that dot the terrain.
- Sports and recreation
Sports have long been part of ritual and recreational life in Laos. The That Luang festival, for instance, has always included a traditional game of field hockey, played with bamboo sticks and a ball made of roots. However, in an effort to be globally competitive, traditional contests like this one, as well as the boat races on the Mekong River, have been “modernized.” Football (soccer) has become a popular spectator sport. Laos has competed in the Summer Olympic Games since 1980, and the country was one of the founding participants in the Southeast Asian Games in 1959.
- Media and broadcasting
The government controls all aspects of the media, including the press, broadcasting, and the Internet. The largest-circulating daily newspaper is Pasaxon (“The People”), published in Vientiane; it is the official organ of the ruling party. Also published in Vientiane is the party’s quarterly journal Aloun Mai (“New Dawn”). The official news agency is Khaosan Pathet Lao (KPL). Lao National Radio broadcasts in a number of languages, principally Lao, English, Hmong, and French; a few small stations broadcast locally. Not subject to government control are the broadcasts of the British Broadcasting Corporation, the Voice of America, and Radio Free Asia, which include news of events in Laos. Resistance forces have been broadcasting antigovernment programs illegally in Lao and Hmong since the late 20th century. The government fully owns and operates Lao National Television, and a second station, Laos Television 3, is owned jointly by the government of Laos and a Thai corporation.
History of Laos
Early History to Independence
The Laotians are descendants of Thai tribes that were pushed southward from Yunnan, China, in the 13th cent. and gradually infiltrated the territory of the Khmer Empire. In the mid-14th cent. a powerful kingdom called Lan Xang was founded in Laos by Fa Ngoun (1353–73), who is also credited with the introduction of Theravada Buddhism and much of Khmer civilization into Laos. Lan Xang waged intermittent wars with the Khmer, Burmese, Vietnamese, and Thai, and by the 17th cent. it held sway over sections of Yunnan, China, of S Myanmar, of the Vietnamese and Cambodian plateaus, and large stretches of N Thailand. In 1707, however, internal dissensions brought about a split of Lan Xang into two kingdoms: Luang Phabang in upper (northern) Laos and Vientiane in lower (southern) Laos. During the next century the two states, constantly quarreling, were overrun by the armies of neighboring countries.
In the early 19th cent. Siam was dominant over the two Laotian kingdoms, although Siamese claims were disputed by Annam. After French explorations in the late 19th cent. Siam was forced (1893) to recognize a French protectorate over Laos, which was incorporated into the union of Indochina. During World War II, Laos was gradually occupied by the Japanese, who in 1945 persuaded the king of Luang Phabang to declare the country's independence.
In 1946 the French reestablished dominion over Laos, recognizing the king as constitutional monarch of the entire country. The French granted an increasing measure of self-government, and in 1949 Laos became a semiautonomous state within the French Union. In 1951, a Communist Laotian nationalist movement, the Pathet Lao, was formed by Prince Souphanouvong in North Vietnam. In 1953, Pathet Lao guerrillas accompanied a Viet Minh invasion of Laos from Vietnam and established a government at Samneua in N Laos. That year Laos attained full sovereignty; admission into the United Nations came in 1955.
- A New Nation's Struggles
The new country faced immediate civil war as Pathet Lao forces, supported by the Viet Minh, made incursions into central Laos, soon occupying sizable portions of the country. Agreements reached at the Geneva Conference of 1954 provided for the withdrawal of foreign troops and the establishment of the Pathet Lao in two northern provinces. In 1957 an agreement was reached between the royal forces and the Pathet Lao, but in 1959 the coalition government collapsed and hostilities were renewed.
A succession of coups resulted (1960) in a three-way struggle for power among neutralist, rightist, and Communist forces. The Communist Pathet Lao rebels remained under the leadership of Prince Souphanouvong in the northern provinces. The right-wing government of Boun Oum, installed in Vientiane, was recognized by the United States and other Western countries and controlled the bulk of the royal Laotian army. The Soviet Union and its allies continued to recognize the deposed neutralist government of Souvanna Phouma, who had fled to neighboring Cambodia.
In May, 1961, with Pathet Lao and neutralist forces in control of about half the country, a cease-fire was arranged. A 14-nation conference convened in Geneva, producing (1962) another agreement providing for the neutrality of Laos under a unified government. A provisional coalition government, with all factions represented, was accordingly established under the premiership of Souvanna Phouma. Attempts to integrate the three military forces failed, however, and the Pathet Lao began moving against neutralist troops.
Open warfare resumed in 1963, and the Pathet Lao, bolstered by supplies and troops from North Vietnam, solidified control over most of N and E Laos. Disgruntled right-wing military leaders staged a coup in 1964 and attempted to force the resignation of Souvanna Phouma; the United States and the Soviet Union emphasized their support of the premier, however, and he remained in office with a right-wing neutralist government.
- The Vietnam War and Communist Rule
Pathet Lao guerrilla activity decreased after the start (1965) of U.S. bombings of North Vietnamese military bases and communications routes. The bombings also included attacks on what came to be known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail, a North Vietnamese supply route through E Laos. Communist pressure increased during 1969, and early in 1970 the Pathet Lao launched several major offensives. Early in 1971, South Vietnamese troops invaded Laotian territory in an unsuccessful attempt to cut the Ho Chi Minh trail. The attack drove the North Vietnamese deeper into Laos, and Laos became another battleground of the Vietnam War, with heavy U.S. aerial bombardments.
During this period, the United States extended enormous military and economic aid to the Laotian government, armed Hmong tribes (who also fought in Vietnam), and financed the use of Thai mercenary troops, whose numbers peaked to over 21,000 in 1972. The Pathet Lao, supported by North Vietnamese troops, scored major gains, consolidating their control over more than two thirds of Laotian territory (but over only one third of the population). Heavy fighting persisted until Feb., 1973, when a cease-fire was finally declared. A final agreement between the government and the Pathet Lao, concluded in Sept., 1973, provided for the formation of a coalition government under the premiership of Souvanna Phouma (inaugurated in Apr., 1974), the stationing of an equal number of government and Pathet Lao troops in the two capitals, and the withdrawal of all foreign troops and advisers.
After Communist victories in Vietnam and Cambodia, the Pathet Lao took control of the country in 1975, abolished the monarchy, and made Laos a republic. Souphanouvong became president, and Kaysone Phomvihane, head of the Communist party, became premier. Huge numbers of Laotians (many Hmong) fled to Thailand and many eventually sought refuge in the United States. (Small Hmong forces, however, continued to fight against the Communists into the 21st cent.) Laos became increasingly dependent on Vietnam for military and economic assistance, and the two countries signed a 25-year treaty of friendship in 1977.
In the early 1990s Laos abandoned economic communism for capitalism, but the party retained tight political control, and political dissent was harshly suppressed. Meanwhile, the nation pursued improved relations with such former enemies as China, Thailand, and the United States. Kaysone became president in 1991. He died the following year and was succeeded as president by Nouhak Phoumsavan. Khamtay Siphandone, a former military leader of the Pathet Lao, became party leader and, when Nouhak retired in 1998, assumed the job of president as well. Laos was admitted to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1997. Khamtay retired as party leader in Mar., 2006; he was succeeded in the post by Vice President (and Lt. Gen.) Choummaly Sayasone, who also succeeded Khamtay as president in June, 2006.
Laos in 2005
Laos Area: 236,800 sq km (91,429 sq mi) Population (2005 est.): 5,924,000 Capital: Vientiane Chief of state: President Khamtay Siphandone Head of government: Prime Minister Bounngang Vorachith ...>>>Read On<<<
Disclaimer
This is not the official site of this country. Most of the information in this site were taken from the U.S. Department of State, The Central Intelligence Agency, The United Nations, [1],[2], [3], [4], [5],[6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14],[15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24],[25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30],[31], [32], [33], [34], and the [35].
Other sources of information will be mentioned as they are posted.